JFV 




HIGHER GROUND 



HINTS TOWARD SETTLING 



THE LABOR TROUBLES 






Higher Ground 



HINTS TOWARD SETTLING 



THE LABOR TROUBLES 



BY 

AUGUSTUS TACOBSON 



CHICAGO 

A. C. McCLURG AND COMPANY 



CAkMj- 



A* 






W*.* 



Copyright 
By A. C. McClurg and Company 

A.D. 1887 



By Transfer 

D. C. Public Library 

AUG 17 t934 






RECEIVED, 

The truth /^ that we^ane, arrived ,ak one -of 



lose 



periods in th 4 'progress 6f society wlten the constitu- 
tion naturally u^d&gpes a change, just ^sAL dm two 
centuries ago. jSs^s^™^Qt|5fe£^ePf9^me king 



to keep down the higheT'p»¥^o£xfei3HSi3&!e classes ; it 
is impossible now to keep down the middle and lower 
parts of them. All that resistance to these natural 
changes can effect is to derange their operation, and 
make them act violently and mischievously, instead of 
healthfully, or at least harmlessly. The old state of 
things is gone past recall, and all the efforts of all the 
Tories cannot save it ; but they may by their folly, 
as they did in France, get us a wild democracy or a 
military despotism in the room of it, instead of letting 
it change quietly into what is merely a new modifica- 
tion of the old state. One would think that people who 
talk against change were literally as well as metaphori- 
cally blind, and really did not see that everything in 
themselves and around them is changing every hour 
by the necessary laws of its being. 

There is nothing so revolutionary, because there 
is nothing so unnatural and so convulsive to society, 
as the strain to keep things fixed, when all the world 
is, by the very law of its creation, in eternal progress ; 
and the cause of all the evils of the world may be 
traced to that natural but most deadly error of human 
indolence and corruption — that our business is to pre- 
serve and not to improve. — Dr. Thomas Arnold, 
Headmaster of Rugby, pending the Refor?n agitation 
in England, April, 1831. 



6 HIGHER GROUND. 

Quixotism or Utopianism, — that is another of the 
Devil's pet words. I believe the quiet admission which 
we are all of us ready to make, that because things 
have long been wrong it is impossible they should 
ever be right, is one of the most fatal sources of 
misery and crime from which this world suffers. 
Whenever you hear a man dissuading you from at- 
tempting to do well on the ground that perfection is 
" Utopian," beware of that man. Cast the word out 
of your dictionary altogether; there is no need for 
it. Things are either possible or impossible — you 
can easily determine which — in any given state of 
human science. If the thing is impossible, you need 
not trouble yourselves about it; if possible, try for it. 
— John Ruskin. 



CONTENTS. 

The Labor Question 9 

The Manual Training School b . . . .103 

APPENDIX 165 



HIGHER GROUND. 



THE LABOR QUESTION. 



The problem of problems in all ages has 
been the one which is beginning to press 
upon us now, and that is, How to prevent the 
few from getting all there is on the earth ; how 
to keep the rich from getting richer and the 
poor from getting poorer ; how to secure a fair 
distribution of property and the comforts and 
conveniences of life for all men and women. 

Everybody wants to settle the labor ques- 
tion, but nobody is willing to sacrifice any- 
thing to settle it ; nobody appears to be willing 
to pay out any money to settle it. The labor 
question will not be settled without sacrifice ; 
it will not be settled without a large expendi- 
ture of money. To settle the labor question 
without sacrifice would be to get something for 
nothing. The settlement of the labor ques- 
tion will in some way have to be paid for. 



IO HIGHER GROUND. 



II. 



In the way of disturbance of business, the 
labor question has already cost this country 
hundreds of millions of dollars ; and the agita- 
tion has hardly yet begun. There are now a 
million of men in the ranks of the Knights of 
Labor, with perhaps as many more enrolled 
in other labor organizations, with perpetual 
strikes and attendant lawlessness. Strikes 
and lawlessness cost money, not only to the 
strikers and the lawless, but to the general 
community. There is rarely a month now 
when the militia is not in active service ; and 
it costs money to keep the militia in active 
service. In the month of May, 1886, there 
were two hundred militia companies in the 
course of formation in the State of Illinois ; 
twenty regiments of a thousand men each, — 
twenty thousand men ; as large an army as 
the Lieutenant-General of the United States 
commands. Pinkerton's private army 1 now 
numbers thousands of soldiers ; and the large 
coal corporations maintain a private army 
of their own. The Pinkerton army and the 

1 See Appendix, I. 



THE LABOR QUESTION. II 

corporation army could probably upon any 
given day muster a greater number of effect- 
ive men in New York, Pittsburgh, or Chicago, 
than the army of the United States. The 
agitation for the increase of the regular army 
is perpetual. In the midst of profound peace, 
the merchants of Chicago have raised several 
hundred thousand dollars to donate to the 
United States a tract of land in order to se- 
cure the location in Chicago of a military 
post ; and the merchants have contributed 
this money solely from fear of lawlessness. 



12 HIGHER GROUND. 



III. 



Like the slavery question, which led to war, 
the labor question is an irrepressible conflict. 
The war between the States grew out of a 
labor question. It was a war for free labor. 
It was not till the day of Appomattox that in 
this country every laborer became a free man. 
There has rarely in the world been a question 
worth discussing that has not been in some 
way a labor question, and the world will prob- 
ably never be without labor questions. The 
story of Adam and Eve in Paradise ends 
with a statement of the condition of the la- 
borer of that early day : " In the sweat of 
thy face shalt thou eat bread till thou return 
unto the ground." Let us be fair. If we who 
do not labor with our hands and yet enjoy 
more of the good things of life than if we did, 
if we, all of us, nevertheless want shorter 
hours, more pay, and a vacation every year, 
why should we think it unreasonable for the 
man who gets $1.50 a day and never has a va- 
cation to want shorter hours and more pay ? 



THE LABOR QUESTION. 13 

If there is any one thing that is praiseworthy 
in a man it is by all lawful means to seek to 
improve his condition, to provide for his chil- 
dren so as to give them a good start in life, 
and to provide for his own declining years. 



14 HIGHER GROUND. 



IV. 



I say that the settlement of the labor ques- 
tion will have to be paid for. In the case of 
slavery it would have been better for us, far 
better for us, to have paid for the slaves thrice 
over. Had we paid for the slaves thrice over 
we should then have saved thousands of mil- 
lions of money, and we should have saved 
hundreds of thousands of lives and all the 
miseries of the war. The experience we had 
with the slavery question admonishes us to 
see to it that the labor question be settled 
peaceably and from the foundation. There 
were periodical settlements of the slavery 
question ; there were compromises and settle- 
ments, in 1789, in 1820, and in 1850; but 
from first to last there was only one thing 
that could settle the slavery question, and 
that one thing was freedom for the slaves. 

The freedom of all the slaves we could have 
bought outright with money. The solution 
of the labor question we can buy outright 
with money. And if we do not choose to 
spend the money directly now, we shall be 
forced to spend it indirectly later on. If we 



THE LABOR QUESTION. 15 

do not choose to spend the one dollar now, 
we shall be forced to spend the ten dollars 
later. The most expensive method of settling 
things is to settle them by means of lawless- 
ness and soldiers. 



1 6 HIGHER GROUND. 



The demand of the man who is at the bot- 
tom for better things in life, is in the nature 
of things. It follows the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence and the enfranchisement of man as 
summer follows spring. It is a demand which 
sooner or later must be met, and it is in the 
interest of everybody that it should be met. 
Last year saw the enfranchisement of two mil- 
lions of voters in England. This year has 
seen the agitation for Home Rule in Ireland, 
and the labor question is at the fore all over 
Europe and the United States. The idea 
that the general condition of man must be 
improved is in the air. It comes of the in- 
vention of gunpowder. It comes of the steam- 
engine. It comes of the printing-press. The 
movement is as irresistible as Niagara. We 
could n't stop it if we would, and I for one 
would n't stop it if I could. All that we can 
do about it is to see that all changes shall 
come without violence and without bloodshed, 
peaceably and beneficently. In this matter, 
as in all matters of social agitation, an ounce 
of prevention is worth a great deal more than 
a pound of cure. 



THE LABOR QUESTION, iy 



VI. 



In modern days there has been a steady 
amelioration in the condition of men who 
labor with their hands. The laboring-man 
has become politically free. He has obtained 
a small degree of intelligence. Shall he now 
permit the betterment of his condition to come 
to a stand-still ? Why should he now permit 
his own improvement to come to a stand-still? 
But great as has been the amelioration of the 
common average man, the many are still the 
foot-ball of the few. 

Society has been from the beginning of time 
and is now so organized as to get as much as 
possible out of the man who labors with his 
hands and to give him in return as little as 
possible. And when I speak of the man who 
labors with his hands, I mean not only the 
man who in city or country works for wages 
but likewise the farmer who works for himself. 
The man who works with his hands sells by 
the quantity and at the lowest possible price 
all he produces. Whatever he has to buy he 
buys at the highest retail price. In the game 
of life the cards are stocked against the man 
who labors with his hands. 



1 8 HIGHER GROUXD. 



VII. 



The average life of the factory girl is only 
thirty years. The children who work in the 
factory look like little old men and women ; 
and they are more vicious than old men and 
old women, — rotten before they are ripe. The 
child who enters a factory as an operative 
leaves hope behind. There are exceptions, — 
of course there are exceptions ; yet the excep- 
tions only prove the rule. The factory is a 
Moloch without mercy. The street-railroad 
sends the car horse, driver, and conductor alike 
to an early grave. The worker in lead soon be- 
comes a chronic invalid, and the stone-cutter 
at thirty dies of consumption. In our cities 
there are hundreds of thousands of virtuous 
women who have abandoned all hope, for 
whom there is in the future nothing but ill- 
health, an early grave, or a hopeless old age of 
infirmity and want. Think of the women who 
eke out a miserable existence by sewing the 
clothes we wear. They sew from early morn 
till late at night, in summer burning with 
heat, in winter shivering with cold, with 
wretched and insufficient food, insufficient 



THE LABOR QUESTION. 1 9 

sleep, insufficient clothing, insufficient exer- 
cise, wretched surroundings, and never a whiff 
of fresh air. In by far the greater number of 
pursuits, the men and women who work with 
their hands risk their health and their lives 
with their every breath. And no matter how 
soon they sicken and die, others stand willing 
and anxious to take their places. The very 
chance to work is a boon. Among laboring 
people vice and crime are bred of want, and 
children are born destined inevitably for the 
brothel and the penitentiary. And the in- 
crease of wealth goes not to the man who 
works with his hands, but to the man who 
works with his head. The increase of wealth 
goes not to the worker, but to the schemer. 



20 HIGHER GROUND. 



VIII. 



Look at the invention of the steam-engine. 
Nearly all the wealth of modern times is 
earned by steam, which does for man his 
work. The wealth which steam earns should 
surely belong to all mankind. Do the many 
get the benefit of it ? Not to any great ex- 
tent. The money which steam earns goes 
into the hands not of the many, but of the few. 
If the money which steam earns went into the 
pockets of the many, to whom it belongs, we 
should to-day have an ideal people, a nation 
without an ignorant man and without a 
pauper. 

The average working-man to-day by means 
of steam does as much work as ten men did a 
century ago, but he gets little better food, he 
gets little better clothing, he gets little better 
instruction, he lives in a hovel, he is out of 
employment periodically, and he and his are 
full of anxiety for the future. The money 
which steam earns, and which should go to 
the millions, goes to the few, and the many 
hopelessly drudge and slave on. 



THE LABOR QUESTION. 21 



IX. 

The wealth which steam has brought us 
has come upon us so suddenly that the people 
have not been prepared to take advantage of 
it. The common average man has been un- 
able to get his share. While the wealth of 
the nation has increased in a ratio never be- 
fore equalled, we have allowed the training of 
the people to stand substantially still. There 
not being general intelligence enough among 
the people to deal with the problem, from 
want of knowledge, from want of foresight, 
we have allowed the enormous wealth brought 
us by steam to be put upon a card and seized 
by the few. It is as if a few Hebrew Jay 
Goulds had seized upon all the manna in the 
Wilderness. Moses wisely did not permit 
the manna to be thus cornered. Moses made 
wise regulations which prevented the corner- 
ing of the manna in the Wilderness. But 
our wealth, which is our manna, has been 
cornered. In this land, in which there is an 
abundance for everybody, multitudes are suf- 
fering for the necessaries of life. It is high 
time to see to it that there shall be a fairer 
distribution of the good things of this world. 



22 HIGHER GROUND. 



X. 

To achieve better things for the man who 
is the under-dog in life's fight, the one thing 
that can never be of any use is lawlessness. 
A cause which, in this land of free speech, 
proceeds in any other way than the good old 
Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-American way of 
convincing by argument, is lost from the 
start. If a cause is good the majority will 
eventually be convinced. The end and aim 
and object of government in this country is 
to secure the greatest good of the greatest 
number. In this country it is impossible to 
keep common-sense from being eventually 
enacted into law. The people may be slow 
to see where their interests lie, but when 
they do see it the measure which furthers 
their interest becomes immediately the law 
of the land. If the man who is the law- 
maker for the time being refuses to enact 
into law the will of the people, there is al- 
ways another man who is very anxious to 
become a law-maker upon the express con- 
dition of doing what the people want. 



THE LABOR QUESTION. 23 

In the right to vote and to levy taxes, the 
struggling multitude have the power not only 
peaceably to right every wrong under which 
they suffer, but they have moreover the power 
to provide peaceably for their own indefinite 
elevation. 

The labor question is one of hours and 
wages, but it is not a mere question of fewer 
hours and more pay. Suppose that every la- 
boring man in the country could have immedi- 
ately more pay for less work ; suppose that all 
that laboring men now ask for were granted ; 
that would not permanently settle the labor 
question. It is not a question involving merely 
hours and wages. 



24 HIGHER GROUND. 



XL 

As in the case of the slavery question, no 
compromise could settle it, nothing but free- 
dom could settle it ; so it is with the labor 
question, — nothing but a higher state of 
existence for the subject of the controversy 
can settle the labor question. There will be 
strikes and there will be boycotts, and there 
will be arbitration, and there will be a thou- 
sand schemes ; but there is only one thing 
that can permanently settle the labor ques- 
tion, and that is the individual improvement 
and elevation of the man who has to labor 
with his hands. 

There is a very simple way which would 
help us out of our present troubles and smooth 
the road for those who are to come after us. 
It is a simple way, but for all that it would be 
a' revolution. To a man who has been ill for 
years, good health is a revolution. Of that 
sort would be this revolution. It would be 
a revolution much greater than any hitherto 
known ; but it would be a peaceful Anglo- 
Saxon revolution. While the revolution was 



THE LABOR QUESTION. 25 

going on, everybody would go about his busi- 
ness. There would be no lawlessness, no 
destruction of property, nobody would be 
maimed, nobody would be wounded, nobody 
would be killed. 



26 HIGHER GROUND. 



XII. 

There was graduated, June, 1886, at the 
Manual Training School at the corner of 
Twelfth Street and Michigan Avenue, Chica- 
go, a class of boys who are an entirely new 
product in the world. They were boys about 
eighteen years of age, who three years before 
had never touched tools with a view to be- 
coming skilled in their use. These boys 
had drawn the plans for several steam-en- 
gines. They had drawn the patterns on pa- 
per. They had made the patterns in wood. 
They had been forced to have the castings 
done by other hands, because there were then 
in the school no facilities for making castings. 
They would have made the castings if there 
had been facilities for doing so. The boys 
had done the chipping and the filing and the 
lathe-work. They had put together their en- 
gines. At the word of command steam was 
turned on, and the engines began to run. 
One of the engines made by the boys is now 
running every day in the school 



THE LABOR QUESTION. 2*] 

These boys had not neglected their books. 
They were ready to stand up and be exam- 
ined side by side with boys who in the ordi- 
nary high school had devoted all their time to 
books. 



28 HIGHER GROUND. 



XIII. 



The manual training school is not a con- 
trivance for making more mechanics. It is a 
contrivance for developing individual power. 
The education of the manual training school 
is just as serviceable for the scholars who are 
not to be mechanics as it is for those who are 
to be mechanics. It is just as serviceable 
for the boy who is to be a lawyer, physician, 
dentist, or what not, as for the boy who is to 
make shoes. The education of the training 
school is in the direction of the polytechnic 
school of the present time. Having the men- 
tal training of a graduate of a high school, 
the graduate of a manual training school will 
not compete with the average wage-worker, 
because he will be able to do very much bet- 
ter for himself. As things are now, the aver- 
age graduate of a manual training school will 
earn at twenty-one years of age $750 a year ; 
and that keeps him away above competing 
with the average wage-worker. The wage- 
workers used to think that they must save 
themselves from competition by prohibiting 
apprentices from learning trades. By letting 



THE LABOR QUESTION. 2Q 

the apprentices learn so much more than the 
wage-workers know, the same object is ef- 
fected. The man who earns $1.50 a day 
strikes periodically because he is constantly 
underbid in the market. The market is 
crowded with $1.50 men. The man who has 
from three to five dollars a day rarely strikes, 
because he has things more his own way. 
There are fewer of his kind. Instead of his 
being obliged to hunt for a place the place 
hunts for him. The manual training school 
raises a boy above the competition of the 
masses of men. 



3 o HIGHER GROUND. 



XIV. 



Manual training is now being introduced 
in the public schools of Chicago, and manual 
training schools are springing up all over the 
land. The people no sooner see manual train- 
ing than they want it for their children. If 
alf the children of the United States could 
have the manual training school education, 
they would be raised to a grade where there 
is no labor question. There is always plenty 
of room higher up. 

The first step towards a remedy for the poor 
condition of the world's hand-workers lies in 
raising the grade of their intelligence, the 
grade of their skill, the grade of their work, 
and as a consequence the grade of their ability 
and power to earn money. The first step to- 
wards a remedy for the poor condition of the 
world's hand-workers lies in training their 
brains together with their hands, and letting 
the product of their labor be the product both 
of skilled hands and of trained brains. The 
first step lies in increasing the earning ca- 
pacity of the individual. 



THE LABOR QUESTION. 3 I 

At the present time, for the children of 
laboring people after they are ten or twelve 
years old, school facilities such as now exist 
are only a hollow mockery. There is no 
earthly use in additional school facilities un- 
less the children are supplied with the means 
of availing themselves of those facilities. The 
necessity is upon the children to earn their 
livelihood ; and of what use are school facili- 
ties to children who must work for their daily 
bread from early morn till dewy eve ? 



32 



HIGHER GROUND. 



XV. 



My proposition is that the manual training 
school shall be made a part of the American 
public school system, as it already is in Chi- 
cago, Toledo, Philadelphia, and other places, 
and that to enable all children to get the 
benefit of the school, parents or guardians 
shall be paid for keeping the children at 
school throughout the public course, includ- 
ing the high school or manual training school. 
The compensation should begin at the chikTs 
twelfth and continue till his twentieth year. 

ist year $50 



2d 

3d 
4th 
5 th 
6th 
7th 
8th 



75 
100 
125 
150 

175 
225 

300 



The proposition includes boys and girls. 
In Toledo and Philadelphia, where manual 
training has been introduced into the public 
schools, experiments are being made which 



THE LABOR QUESTION. 



33 



will eventually make the manual training as 
serviceable for girls as it already is for boys. 
In Philadelphia and Toledo girls are being 
taught cooking, se^sri^Sv^^ll^^S^Sif the 
household arts. 




34 HIGHER GROUND. 



XVI. 

The expense would be enormous, of course. 
The remedy is an extraordinary one, and ex- 
traordinary means would have to be resorted 
to to carry it into effect. The expense could 
not be met by any taxation in vogue at pres- 
ent, but it could be met by a graduated suc- 
cession tax upon estates. To collect such a 
tax would cost nothing of any consequence, 
because no new officers would be needed to 
levy or collect it. In war times we had 
a succession tax, and it never failed to be 
collected ; simply because the probate judge 
could declare no estate settled until the tax 
had been paid. The tax, until paid, was a 
lien upon all the property of the estate. The 
tax could not be avoided. It never failed to be 
paid. It was upon personal property only, — 
y\°lc, 1%, 3, 4, and 5%, depending upon the 
relationship of the party inheriting to the de- 
ceased. The law was passed by Congress in 
1861, amended in 1862, and both acts were 
signed by Abraham Lincoln as President. 



THE LABOR QUESTION. 35 

They will be found in the United States 
Statutes at Large, Vol. XII., page 485. 

" Sect. hi. And be it further enacted, That 
any person or persons having in charge or trust, as 
administrators, executors, or trustees of any lega- 
cies or distributive shares arising from personal 
property of any kind whatsoever, where the whole 
amount of such personal property as aforesaid 
shall exceed the sum of $1,000 in actual value, 
passing from any person who may die after the 
passage of this act, possessed of such property 
either by will or by the intestate laws of any State 
or Territory, or any part of such property or in- 
terest therein, transferred by deed, grant, bargain, 
sale, or gift made or intended to take effect in 
possession or enjoyment after the death of the 
grantor or bargainor, to any person or persons or 
to any body or bodies politic or corporate, in trust 
or otherwise, shall be and hereby are, made sub- 
ject to a duty or tax, to be paid to United States, 
as follows, that is to say : — 

1. Where the person or persons entitled to any 
beneficial interest in such property shall be the 
lineal issue or lineal ancestor, brother or sister, 
to the person who died possessed of such prop- 
erty, as aforesaid, at and after the rate of sev- 
enty five cents for each and every hundred 
dollars of the clear value of such interest in such 
property. 



36 HIGHER GROUND. 

2. Where the person or persons entitled to any 
beneficial interest in such property shall be a 
descendant of a brother or sister of the person 
who died possessed as aforesaid, at and after the 
rate of one dollar and fifty cents for each and 
every hundred dollars of the clear value of such 
interest. 

3. Where the person or persons entitled to any 
beneficial interest in such property shall be a 
brother or sister of the father or mother, or a 
descendant of the brother or sister of the father 
or mother of the person who died possessed as 
aforesaid, at and after the rate of three dollars for 
each and every hundred dollars of the clear value 
of such interest. 

4. Where the person or persons entitled to any 
beneficial interest in such property shall be a 
brother or sister of the grandfather or grand- 
mother, or a descendant of the brother or sister 
of the grandfather or grandmother of the person 
who died possessed as aforesaid, at and after the 
rate of four -dollars for each and every hundred 
dollars of the clear value of such interest. 

5. Where the person or persons entitled to 
any beneficial interest in such property shall be 
in any other degree of collateral consanguinity 
than is hereinbefore stated, or shall be a stranger 
in blood to the person who died possessed, as 
aforesaid, or shall be a body politic or corporate, 
at and after the rate of five dollars for each and 



THE LABOR QUESTION. 37 

every hundred dollars of the clear value of such 
interest. Provided : That all legacies or property 
passing by will or by the laws of any State or 
Territory to husband or wife of the person who 
died possessed, as aforesaid, shall be exempt 
from tax or duty." 



38 HIGHER GROUND. 



XVII. 

In war times we had a graduated income 
tax, so that a graduated tax is not new to the 
American people. The succession tax and 
the graduated tax are not going to upset the 
country. They are both things that have 
already been. The principle that a large ac- 
cumulation should pay at a higher rate than 
a small accumulation was established in war 
times. The income tax was — 

5% on all incomes over $600 and under $5,000 
7^% " u " 5,000 " " 10,000 

10% " " u 10,000 

The law was passed in 1864, ar *d signed by 
Abraham Lincoln as President. It may be 
found in the United States Statutes at Large, 
Vol. XIII., page 281. 

"Sect. 116. And be it further enacted. That 
there shall be levied, collected and paid annually 
upon the annual gains, profits or income of 
every person residing in the United States, or 
of any citizen of the United States residing 
abroad, whether derived from any kind of prop- 
erty, rents, interests, dividends, salaries, or from 
any profession, trade, employment, or vocation, 



THE LABOR QUESTION. 39 

carried on in the United States or elsewhere, or 
from any other source whatever, except as herein- 
after mentioned, if such annual gains, profits, or 
income, exceed the sum of six hundred dollars, 
a duty of five per centum on the excess over six 
hundred dollars and not exceeding five thousand 
dollars ; and a duty of seven and one half of one 
per centum per annum on the excess over five 
thousand dollars and not exceeding ten thousand 
dollars ; and a duty of ten per centum on the 
excess over ten thousand dollars." 

The income tax was, to be sure, levied in 
war times and under the exigencies of war 
times. The tax which I propose is to pre- 
vent war times. " Let us have peace." The 
income tax was odious because the scrupu- 
lous paid, and the unscrupulous escaped by 
swearing falsely. A succession tax is a fair 
method of taxation because nobody can es- 
cape paying it. All must pay, and all must pay 
alike in proportion to the size of the estate. 

The State of New York has a graduated 
succession tax passed by the Legislature of 
New York, June 10, 1885. It may be found 
in the Laws of New York, 1885, 108th Ses- 
sion, Chapter 483, page 820, and is entitled 
" An Act to tax gifts, legacies, and collateral 
inheritances in certain cases." 



40 HIGHER GROUND. 

<k Sect. i. After the passage of this act, all prop- 
erty which shall pass by will or by the intestate 
laws of this State from any person who may die 
seized or possessed of the same while being a 
resident of the State, or which property shall be 
within this State, or any part of such property, or 
any interest therein, or income therefrom, trans- 
ferred by deed, grant, sale or gift, made or in- 
tended to take effect in possession or enjoyment 
after the death of the grantor or bargainor, to any 
person or persons, or to a body politic or corpor- 
ate, in trust or otherwise, or by reason whereof 
any person, or body politic or corporate shall 
become beneficially entitled, in possession or 
expectancy, to any property, or to the income 
thereof, other than to or for the use of father, 
mother, husband, wife, children, brother and sis- 
ter and lineal descendants born in lawful wed- 
lock, and the wife or widow of a son and the 
husband of a daughter, and the societies, corpora- 
tions and institutions now exempted by law from 
taxation, shall be and is subject to a tax of five 
dollars on every hundred dollars of the clear 
market value of such property, and at and after 
the same rate for any less amount, to be paid to 
the treasurer of the proper county, and in the 
city and county of New York to the Comptroller 
thereof, for the use of the State, and all adminis- 
trators, executors and trustees shall be liable for 
any and all such taxes, until the same shall have 



THE LABOR QUESTION. 41 

been paid, as hereinafter directed. Provided : 
That an estate which may be valued at a less sum 
than five hundred dollars shall not be subject to 
said duty or tax." J 

This law establishes a succession tax, so 
far as it goes, and it establishes a graduated 
succession tax because a very small estate is 
exempt while a larger one is taxed. 

1 See Appendix, III. 



42 



HIGHER GROUND. 



XVIII. 

The tax which I propose would be gradu- 
ated, — small on small amounts, and larger as 
the amounts increase. 

%% on all estates less than $25,000 

}&% on all estates above $25,000 and less than $50,000 



X% " 


ll t 


' 50,000 ' 


f " IOO.OOO 


1% " 


« i 


' 100,000 ' 


" 200,000 


2% " 


" ' 


1 200,000 ' 


11 300,000 


3% " 


" ' 


' 300,000 ' 


" 400,000 


4% " 


(i l 


f 400,000 ' 


" 500,000 


5% " 


II ( 


1 500,000 ' 


1 " 600,000 


6% " 


« 1 


1 600,000 ' 


" 700,000 


7% " 


tt t 


4 700,000 ' 


" 800,000 


8% " 


M 1 


' 800,000 ' 


11 900,000 


9% " 


" ■ 


' 900,000 ' 


" 1,000,000 



Ten per cent above a million ; one per cent 
additional for each additional hundred thou- 
sand, up to fifty per cent on five millions or 
any sum above five millions. 

This tax would not and could not fall heav- 
ily upon anybody, because where there was 
no estate there would be no tax. It would 
not annoy the man of business struggling 
with difficulties, because it would not be lev- 
ied upon business, but only upon accumula- 
tions actually left at death. If the estate were 



THE LABOR QUESTION. 43 

small it would be a very small tax, at a very 
small rate. If the estate were large the estate 
would pay a large tax, at a rate high in pro- 
portion to its size. If there were no accu- 
mulations there would be no tax. 



44 



HIGHER GROUND. 



XIX. 



I will not here go into wearisome details. 
It is enough to say that the proceeds of the 
tax would cover the proposed expenditure. 
The tax would be sufficient for the proposed 
education, but no more than sufficient. The 
tax would probably, at the rates named, be 
equal to the expense of the education ; and 
the expense of the education would prob- 
ably be equal to the proceeds of the tax. 
The tax would at present yield from three to 
six millions annually in Chicago, and from 
twenty-five to fifty millions annually in New 
York City. 

But can this state of things be brought 
about ? Have the people the right to make 
such laws ? The people can make whatever 
laws they like; and when made, laws must 
be obeyed by all. The only question is, 
Would such a law be expedient? Would 
such a law be for the general good of all 
the people ? 



THE LABOR QUESTION. 45 



XX. 

In addition to the succession tax which I 
propose it would be greatly for the interest of 
the people of the United States to establish 
some of the rules of inheritance of the Code 
Napoleon, under which the immense subdivi- 
sion of estates in France has taken place. It 
is the law in France that if a man has one 
child that child takes by law one half of the 
father's estate. The father can dispose other- 
wise, as he likes, of the other half, but he can 
dispose of no more than one half. The father 
can dispose only of what would be the share 
of one child. If he has two children he can 
dispose of one third of his estate, if three 
children of one fourth, if four children of one 
fifth, and so on. The children have their 
remedy at law to recover their portion of their 
father's estate. There are very few wills made 
in France, because the law disposes so wisely 
of estates and leaves people so little liberty 
in willing away their property. There is 
rarely in France a contest over a will; the law- 
disposes of the property, and it goes to the 
children, and not, as so often in this country, 



46 HIGHER GROUND. 

to the lawyers. If this wise law had been 
in force in this country, the Vanderbilt and 
Astor estates could never have become what 
they are ; and if this were now the law the 
Vanderbilt, Astor, and Gould fortunes must 
soon be scattered among many heirs, instead 
of being held together as a menace to the 
business interests and liberties of this people. 1 

1 See Appendix, IV. 



THE LABOR QUESTION. 47 



XXI. 

The purpose being fully understood, I be- 
lieve that the people would gladly vote the 
succession tax. The moderately well-to-do 
would gladly favor it in view of its applica- 
tion, because it would be so obviously for 
their advantage. Upon an estate of $1,000 
the tax would be only $2.50. Upon an estate 
of less than $25,000 the tax could not exceed 
$62.50. Upon an estate of less than $50,000 
the tax could not exceed $250. Upon an 
estate of less than $75,000 the tax could not 
exceed $562.50. Upon an estate of $100,000 
the tax would be $1,000. Upon an estate of 
$199,000 the tax would be $1,900. Upon an 
estate of $299,000 the tax would be $5,980. 
Upon an estate of $399,000 the tax would 
be $11,970. Upon an estate of $499,000 the 
tax would be $19,960. Upon an estate of 
$1,000,000 the tax would be $100,000. Upon 
an estate of $2,000,000 the tax would be 
$400,000. Upon an estate of $3,000,000, 
$900,000. Upon $4,000,000, $1,600,000; and 
upon an estate of $5,000,000 and upwards, 
the tax would be one half of the estate. The 



48 HIGHER GROUND. 

larger the estate, the more easily could the 
tax be borne. In the nature of things the 
tax could never fall heavily upon anybody, 
because the tax would be in proportion to the 
size of the estate, and where there was no 
estate there would be no tax. 



THE LABOR QUESTION. 49 



XXII. 

Without wealth there can be no intelli- 
gence. The wealth of a country must pro- 
duce the intelligence of that country, or there 
will be no intelligence. This country cannot 
peaceably get along with the intelligence we 
now have. The best proof of that is that we 
are not getting along peaceably. No matter 
in whose hands the wealth is, intelligence suf- 
ficient to enable us to live in peace must be 
paid for and produced. With the means at 
hand to prevent it, we cannot afford to let our 
institutions succumb to chaos and anarchy. 
That in this land of liberty children should 
be foredoomed to starvation, to vice, and to 
crime, as they are in lands of despotism, 
would make of liberty a delusion and a snare, 
and would make us all feel that the less we 
said about liberty the better. That is not 
what is in store for the children who are to 
be born in poverty on this generous Ameri- 
can soil. The question is not what the few 
would like. The question is what is for the 
interest of the many. The welfare of the 
people is the supreme law. The welfare of 
4 



50 HIGHER GROUND. 

the people is above everything else. All pri- 
vate considerations have to yield to the wel- 
fare of the people. Unless the wealth of the 
country shall in the manner proposed, or in 
some similar manner, be made to respond to 
the educational needs of the country, all the 
beggarliness, degradation, and hopelessness of 
European life will be upon us. 

Except for purposes of power and display, 
it makes no difference whatever whether a 
family has five millions or ten millions of 
money. Five millions will give them every- 
thing they can use, just as well as ten millions. 
Money which enables people to dispense with 
care, forethought, and labor, is a curse rather 
than a blessing. It may be safely asserted 
that more young people are rendered worth- 
less and ruined than are benefited by large 
inheritances. 



THE LABOR QUESTION. 5 I 



XXIII. 

What is called society in this country imi- 
tates to the extent of its ability English so- 
ciety, and high English society gives every 
evidence of being the most corrupt institution 
on the earth. Contrary to the general opin- 
ion, high society in France, because it is com- 
paratively poor, is sweet and pure compared 
to society in England. English society is ac- 
cessible to everybody who has a long purse. 
English society is a wonderful illustration of 
the mischief that Satan finds for idle hands 
to do. In England, the higher you get so- 
cially the lower you get morally ; and that is 
the condition of things which great fortunes 
tend to introduce into this country. 

Horace Greeley was more than half right 
in saying that a man worth more than a mil- 
lion is a nuisance. Money in superabundance 
only enables the possessor to lead a life of 
self-indulgence. That a class of habitual do- 
nothings should grow up here, to poison life 
for the workers, flies in the face of all Ameri- 
can tradition and aspiration. It is good public 
policy for the law to step in and prevent it, 



52 HIGHER GROUND. 

as it is for the law to step in and prevent the 
establishment of any other public nuisance. 

The law of inheritance of the Code Napo- 
leon, which has now been the law of France 
nearly a hundred years, coupled with the suc- 
cession tax which I propose, would imme- 
diately put an end to all excessively large 
fortunes in this country. 



THE LABOR QUESTION. 53 



XXIV. 

If the law in New York were now what I 
propose, the William H. Vanderbilt estate 
would furnish over a hundred millions of dol- 
lars for the education of the people. Had 
this been the law of New York in 1875, the 
estate of Commodore Vanderbilt would at 
that time have furnished for education from 
thirty to fifty millions. And if that amount 
of money had been taken from Commodore 
Vanderbilt' s estate in 1875, the present Van- 
derbilt fortune would have been impossible. 
If, then, the rest of the fortune had been di- 
vided among all of Commodore Vanderbilt's 
children, share and share alike, instead of be- 
ing given substantially all to William H. 
Vanderbilt alone, all the cornering of things 
that has been done all these years by means 
of the Vanderbilt fortune would have been 
impossible. 

Not a man, woman, or child of the name of 
Vanderbilt would have been in the slightest 
degree any the less comfortable if the tax had 
been collected, and the Vanderbilt fortune 
equally divided among the Commodore's chil- 



54 hlGIIER GROUND. 

dren. We arc apt to think that only poverty 
is brutalizing. Excessive wealth appears to 
be equally so. Nothing short of so much 
money could have caused old Commodore 
Vanderbilt to cut off all his children but 
one, without their having given him the 
slightest cause for it. If the Commodore's 
money had been evenly distributed among 
his children after paying the tax I propose, 
there can be no doubt that the happiness of 
the Vanderbilt family would have been far 
greater than it has been. 

Would this tax be unjust to the Vander- 
bilts ? The Vanderbilt estate is one of the 
many vast accumulations earned by steam. 
Without steam the accumulation would not 
have been possible. The Vanderbilts did not 
invent steam. The Vanderbilt estate is one 
of the vast accumulations gotten together at 
the expense of the people by stock-watering. 
The Vanderbilt estate was never fairly earned, 
as a man earns money in legitimate business. 
As a matter of fact, among the fortunes run- 
ning up into the many millions there is not 
one in twenty that is honestly earned in le- 
gitimate business. The Vanderbilt money is 
tainted. The immense pile is the result of 
some honest industry, and of a vast deal of 



THE LABOR QUESTION. 55 

legislative, judicial, and every other form 
of corruption and imposition on the people. 
But if this tax would be unjust to the Van- 
derbilts, would it be as brutally unjust as it 
was for Commodore Vanderbilt to deprive 
nearly all his children of any substantial 
share in his estate ? There would be no 
injustice to the Vanderbilts in the succes- 
sion tax. Had the law as I propose it existed 
at the time, it would have done that justice to 
Commodore Vanderbilt's children which he 
himself did not choose to do. 



56 HIGHER GROUND. 



XXV. 

Would this measure be just to all ? Gov- 
ernment is not a matter of absolute justice. 
Government at best is only a matter of expe- 
diency. This measure is expedient. It would 
produce no unhappiness, and it would produce 
an immense deal of happiness. That part of 
the earth which we inhabit would become less 
and less of a vale of tears with each year. 
With the very rich people there would not at 
any rate be any question of suffering. They 
would still be very comfortable and happy 
after paying a succession tax. They would 
be much happier paying fifty per cent than 
if the amount inherited were so small that the 
rate would be only one per cent. There is 
no question of justice involved at all. There 
is involved in the whole matter only a ques- 
tion of expediency. But let us admit for the 
sake of argument that there is a question of 
justice. Let us admit for the sake of argu- 
ment that it would be unjust towards men 
who are now many times millionnaires, to 



THE LABOR QUESTION, 57 

enact, to take effect immediately, the law 
which would upon their death take for pub- 
lic uses from ten to fifty per cent of their 
estates. Then let us suppose the law to 
be enacted so that the rate of tax over and 
above ten per cent should take effect not till 
the year 1925, leaving all our very rich men 
forty years in which to die and thus have 
their property escape the tax. Until 1925, 
then, the man of fifty millions would pay only 
at the same rate as the man of one million. 
That would apparently be unjust too; but it 
is all a matter not of justice but of expedi- 
ency. But surely, after 1925, the law having 
been established many years and great wealth 
having been acquired under it and subject to 
it, nobody could then complain with any de- 
gree of fairness. 

To suit the notions of those who always 
desire the welfare of mankind to be post- 
poned to a more convenient season, the whole 
law might be enacted to take effect after we 
shall all be dead and gone, and then, maybe, 
its enactment would be less difficult. The 
importation of negroes as slaves was abol- 
ished in this way, to take effect in 1808, by 
the Constitution of the United States adopted 
in 1787, leaving twenty-one years more time 



58 higher ground. 

wherein to increase the evil which was to 
give us four years of war. I would rather 
have the law which I propose take effect forty 
years hence than not to have it at all, but if 
it were well done 't were well *t were done 
quickly. 

I put this measure upon the ground of ex- 
pediency, but I believe it to be pre-eminently 
just. I believe it to be a measure which 
would increase in this country the tendency 
of things to " make for righteousness." With 
a population so intelligent and efficient as it 
would produce, the reform of the civil service 
would become an easy matter. There would 
be less intemperance. Good tendencies of in- 
dividuals are strengthened by thorough train- 
ing of mind and body, and evil ones are 
diminished by the same means. Besides, in- 
temperance is often the result of helplessness 
and hopelessness, — of seeing no way out. 
With individual power to achieve things come 
hope and strength, and with hope and strength 
and faith in the future come temperance and 
a firmer character all around. Women with 
their own way to make in the world would 
find themselves better fitted for the work of 
the world. With ability to do many things, 
they would more easily find the one thing 



THE LABOR QUESTION. 59 

to do, and therefore they would find the 
world's roads easier. All reforms and im- 
provements, all good causes, would be helped 
by this measure. It is broader than any and 
all of them. 



6o HIGHER GROUND. 



XXVI. 



The very rich man would say that he should 
be permitted to do what he likes with his own. 
That he cannot do even now. The law inter- 
feres with him at every step and tells him 
what he may do with his own and what he 
must not do. The test of what a man may 
do with his own is that what he does must 
not be contrary to public policy ; what he 
does must not be contrary to the welfare of 
the people. People used to entail their prop- 
erty so as to have it descend to the first-born 
male. That was once the case with landed 
property in this country, and it is still the case 
in England. We have done away with entails 
and primogeniture on the ground that they 
are contrary to public policy. Public policy 
decides what a man may do with his property ; 
and to say nothing of the object for which this 
money is sorely needed, fortunes running up 
into the hundreds of millions of money are 
contrary to public policy if ever there was 
anything contrary to public policy. 

The very rich people would object both to 
the succession tax and to rules of inheritance 



% TffE LABOR QUESTION. 6l 

which would prevent what has been done in 
the Vanderbilt and Astor estates ; but the 
very rich people, like the rest of us, live in a 
country of majority rule, and for the general 
good we all have to submit to things that we 
do not like ; and the very rich people must not 
stand in the way of the general good. 



HIGHER GROUXD. 



XXVII. 



Nearly all rich men, at least nearly all those 
whose estates do not run up into the many 
millions, do as much for benevolent objects as 
the proposed succession tax would take from 
their estates. It may be said to be a custom 
in the United States for people of large means 
to bequeath money for benevolent objects ; and 
as wealth increases the custom is more and 
more observed. Nowhere else on earth do 
people of wealth give away money as freely 
as they do here. In the city of Chicago alone 
there are at this very moment bequests not 
yet carried into effect amounting to at least 
five millions of dollars. Washington De Pauw 
of Evansville, Indiana, died recently, bequeath- 
ing $1,250,000 to the De Pauw University of 
Greencastle, Indiana. This bequest is in ad- 
dition to large sums previously given by him 
to the same institution, by reason whereof 
the University had changed its name from 
Asbury to De Pauw. 1 But in carrying out 
their benevolent ideas people of wealth rarely 
act with much wisdom, and rarely in such a 

1 See Appendix, V. 



THE LABOR QUESTION, 6$ 

manner as to accomplish much good. They 
cause to be erected and established libraries 
where there are no readers, and colleges where 
there are no students. Well-meaning and 
benevolent rich men have endowed and estab- 
lished, at the South, innumerable so-called 
colleges where young colored people are wast- 
ing their time and strength in learning Latin 
and Greek ! How could anything be more 
absurd ? These things are not to be won- 
dered at. Men who know how to accumulate 
large sums generally have their thoughts fully 
occupied with business, and have but little 
time to give to the progress of the world. 
When Professor Agassiz was offered $100,000 
to lecture, he said that he had no time to make 
money, that he needed all his time for thought. 
Rich men have no time for high thought, they 
need all their time to make money. Men 
who have accumulated millions keep on ac- 
cumulating while they can, because generally 
that is all they know how to do. Generally 
their tastes have not been developed in any 
direction other than that of money getting. 
First they begin to accumulate to provide 
for a rainy day, then for a competency, then 
for a fortune, then it becomes an excitement 
and amusement, and it ends by being the 



64 HIGHER GROUND. 

only thing they are capable of. I knew a 
very wealthy man many times a millionnaire, 
who, dying recently, inquired with almost 
his dying breath for the last market quota- 
tions of stocks. There are exceptions of 
course ; there are exceptions to all rules. 
Rich men lead in killing hogs and bullocks, 
in selling dry goods and groceries, in cor- 
nering things, and in all material enterprises, 
but not in the world of thought. As to 
the world of thought very rich men, en- 
grossed with business, are situated very much 
as convicts in the penitentiary are situated as 
to the news of the day. A stray bit of thought 
may reach the rich man, as a stray bit of news 
may reach the convict, but that is all. The 
natural-born accumulator subordinates every- 
thing to the one supremely important object 
of getting things of which he has no need. 
It is not to be wondered at that men of this 
stamp, even when seeking to do benevolent 
things with their money, fail entirely in ac- 
complishing their object. I say, and I say it 
without fear of contradiction, that by many 
such men a law once enacted and fairly car- 
ried out, which would take from their estates 
a reasonable share and secure with it the 
greatest good of the greatest number, would 



THE LABOR QUESTION. 65 

be regarded as a boon. In the current num- 
ber (December, 1886), of the "North Ameri- 
can Review," Mr. Pierre Lorillard has an 
article in which he advocates a legacy tax 
of 10 per cent on all estates above $200,000, 
upon the express ground that such a tax 
would tend to put an end to excessive for- 
tunes. Mr. Lorillard is, as we all know, not 
a sentimentalist, not a socialist, but a very- 
wealthy manufacturer of chewing and smok- 
ing tobacco, whose estate would have to pay 
a very considerable amount of money under 
such a law as he advocates. 

The late Mr. Samuel J. Tilden, one of the 
cunningest lawyers in the world, left the 
greater portion of his estate for benevolent 
purposes, and now less cunning lawyers than 
Mr. Tilden was are busy setting aside his 
will. If the law had taken for public educa- 
tion, in the manner which I propose, one half 
of Mr. Tilden's estate, there would still have 
been left enough to give to his relatives much 
more than he meant to give them, and then 
there would still have been left enough where- 
with to perpetuate Mr. Tilden's memory. 

Senator Stanford's case is another one in 
point. By founding a college with twenty 
millions of dollars he is seeking to have his 
5 



66 HIGHER GROUND. 

name go down to posterity as a benefactor 
of his race. But of colleges of a high order 
there are already enough. It is a very stupid 
way to spend so much money, for only a very 
limited number of educated men and women 
can be produced by an institution of that sort. 
The way to make good education general is 
to give to all a good foundation for an educa- 
tion ; and then those whose bias is towards 
learning will struggle forward and help them- 
selves to the highest possible education. Sen- 
ator Stanford's twenty millions at three per 
cent would yield yearly six hundred thousand 
dollars, and six hundred thousand dollars 
would, on the basis I propose, educate in man- 
ual training schools four thousand pupils 
yearly ; and out of the four thousand pupils 
thus started upon the road towards learning, 
there would be eventually a greater number 
of highly-educated men and women than 
Senator Stanford's money will ever produce, 
— leaving the manual training school educa- 
tion of the rest of the pupils a net gain. 

When a sufficient provision has been made 
out of an estate for public uses, to be spent 
not to suit individual caprice but in the man- 
ner most conducive to public welfare, then the 
relatives of the deceased should have the rest, 



THE LABOR QUESTION, 67 

and the memory of the dead man be left to 
stand upon its merits or demerits as the case 
may be. The Vanderbilt perpetuity, the 
Tilden act of self-glorification are contrary 
to the interests of the people, contrary to 
public policy, and the law should step in and 
put an end to them. 



68 HIGHER GROUND. 



XXVIII. 



The proposition is not to take by taxa- 
tion private property, without compensation. 
Never before in the world has such compen- 
sation been given for property as there would 
be for the amount of this tax. The compen- 
sation would be in the increased happiness of 
mankind. The rich would not become poor, 
and the poor would not become rich, but 
everybody would be more comfortable. This 
tax would not make life harder for one single 
human being, but it would make life easier 
for millions. The compensation would be in 
a peaceable and orderly society which would 
never be at war with itself. The compensa- 
tion would be in perfect security of property. 
The more property a man has, the greater is 
his anxiety about its security, and he can well 
afford to pay a higher rate for security in pro- 
portion to his anxiety. Now, as the number 
of men holding property becomes larger so 
does the security of property increase. Where 
the many are hopeless about acquiring prop- 
erty there can be no security of property. If 
to make property secure you once begin to 



THE LABOR QUESTION. 69 

increase the army there will be no end of it, 
and soldiers are far more expensive than 
schoolmasters. It is much cheaper to make 
good citizens by means of schoolmasters than 
it is to shoot bad citizens by means of soldiers. 
And we must have either more schoolmasters 
or more soldiers. The proposition which I 
have set forth would without any additional 
soldiers fill the large house with peaceful se- 
curity ; it would fill the small house with hope, 
self-respect, aspiration, pluck. It means se- 
curity of property for those who have it ; and 
for those who have it not it means a fair 
chance to acquire property. And therefore 
it means the highest possible security of 
property. 

The security of property which the high 
education of all the people would produce 
would make the succession tax the best possi- 
ble investment for all. With dynamite and 
other modern means of destruction at hand it 
is in the interest of everybody that the rising 
generation shall grow up to be intelligent and 
efficient men and women. If we go on at the 
present rate, it will be only a short time before 
we shall be as afraid of the rising of the la- 
boring men as the South used to be of negro 
insurrections. But take the children of the 



70 HIGHER GROUND. 

* 

anarchists condemned to be hanged and make 
them intelligent and efficient American citi- 
zens, and they will not wish to march under 
the red flag. They will wish to march only 
under the flag under which they were made 
intelligent and efficient men and women. Can 
any state of things be conceived which the 
great body of the common people would fight 
harder to maintain ? This proposition is quite 
as much in the interest of the rich as it is in 
the interest of the poor. 



THE LABOR QUESTION. 7 1 



XXIX. 

This measure is by no means directed against 
the rich. I am speaking of the opposition of 
the rich because some of them will oppose the 
succession tax as being aimed and directed 
against them, whereas it is really in their in- 
terest and in the interest of everybody. The 
rich men of the present generation will all 
be in their coffins in a few years. They can 
neither much help nor hinder any measure. 
The barefooted and impecunious descendants 
of many of them will be glad enough to find 
the world's roads easier. The policy which I 
propose is not invented to despoil anybody, 
but to bless everybody. I am proposing a 
policy to affect mainly men who have not yet 
begun to accumulate and men who have not 
yet been born. I am speaking of a proposi- 
tion broad enough for the universe, and alto- 
gether too broad to be directed against any 
individual or individuals. I am speaking of a 
policy for all men and for all time. This 
measure would bear comparatively little on 



72 HIGHER GROUND. 

the present generation. It is for the immense 
future. Once established, the generations 
born under it would never think of changing 
it, because its effects upon humanity would be 
beneficial beyond anything ever conceived. 



THE LABOR QUESTION. 73 



XXX. 

This measure, more than anything else that 
could be devised, would put an end to the 
arraying of the masses against the classes. 
The very best thing that wealthy people can 
get for their money is high education for their 
children, and this measure once established 
the poor would be able to get that, too. In- 
stead of having the fierce hatred for the pos- 
sessors of wealth which is now developing in 
this country, the poor would say of a rich man : 
Let him go on accumulating money ; at his 
death some of his money will be our money 
for the education of our children ; and the 
more he accumulates the more we shall get. 

This measure once established, the cities, 
instead of being sores upon the body politic, 
would be filled with a rising generation of 
intelligent youth that would reform politics. 
Corruption in our city government would 
measurably cease. Where do corrupt alder- 
men and legislators mainly come from ? They 
come from, and are elected in, sections of the 
city noted for the ignorance of the inhabitants. 
The sections of the city where the most in- 



74 HIGHER GROUND. 

telligent people live generally elect intelligent, 
honest, and fair-minded representatives. The 
ignorant sections elect ignorant, corrupt, and 
thievish representatives. Like master, like 
man. 

In a few years we should have the most in- 
telligent population on the earth. We should 
have a population altogether too intelligent 
for lawlessness. 

If all the children of the United States, the 
children of the laboring population as well as 
the children of the well-to-do, could have this 
education, our boast that in this country there 
are equal opportunities for all would come 
very near being true. 

This training of the young into intelligence 
and efficiency, accompanied with payment to 
their parents for the time spent in getting the 
training, would go very far towards solving the 
labor question. There is nothing else that 
would go so far towards solving it. Regard- 
less of the labor question, this would be a 
good thing to do. If there were no labor 
question at all, it would still be the very best 
thing to do. But there is a labor question, 
and so long as we do not solve it by education 
it will be and abide and remain with us forever, 
an irrepressible conflict. 



THE LABOR QUESTION, 75 

Instead of going for a mere pittance into 
the coal mine, the mill, or the factory, to be 
dwarfed physically, mentally, and morally, by 
long hours, over-work, and evil associations, 
the children of the poor, for like wages where- 
with to buy bread, would gladly crowd into the 
schools. Getting them into the schools and 
keeping them there throughout the public 
course would bring trained to the front all 
the brains and ability born in the community. 
It would bring capacity to the front, from the 
Five Points as well as from Murray Hill. It 
would light up with bright hopes and aspira- 
tions for the children the poorest hovel. It 
would mean fewer tramps, fewer paupers, 
fewer hovels, and more comfortable people. 
More than ever before it would make of 
this land for struggling humanity an earthly 
paradise. 



j6 HIGHER GROUND. 



XXXI. 

If this proposition were carried into effect 
it would immediately settle the child-labor 
question. The children would be at school, 
where they ought to be. The orphans and 
the fatherless would be educated. The chil- 
dren of drunkards would be educated. Charity 
would still cover a multitude of sins, but 
charity would be relieved from nearly all re- 
sponsibility toward the rising generation. 
The young have not sinned by coming into 
the world, and charity should not be troubled 
about them. This measure enacted, charity 
would be left to its legitimate function of re- 
lieving distress. Charity would have nothing 
to do with education ; a good education would 
become the birthright of every American 
child. 

The civilizing home influence of children 
trained up to the point of a complete high- 
school education would entirely change the 
present aspect of the homes of the country. 
In thousands of homes the well-trained chil- 
dren would lead their parents into gentler 
and better ways. Even people who had no 



THE LABOR QUESTION. J "/ 

appreciation of education would educate their 
children if paid for doing it. Nowadays 
people leave their children in ignorance, be- 
cause they cannot afford the expense of edu- 
cating them. But under my proposition it 
would be cheaper for parents to educate their 
children than to leave them in ignorance. 
The poorer the parents, the more anxious 
would they be to educate their children, and 
the more certain would they be to do it. 
Poor parents would make life easier for them- 
selves simply by educating their children. 
Between the ages of twelve and twenty each 
child would draw each year an average of one 
hundred and fifty dollars for support while 
being educated. If there were four children 
in a family their aggregate school-years after 
twelve would be thirty-two ; and the family 
would draw for their schooling from the pub- 
lic fund, during say sixteen years, four thou- 
sand eight hundred dollars. The intelligent 
and efficient young would take care of and 
provide for the old and infirm. Of the misery 
of the world whose origin is in want, one half 
would disappear. "Verily I say unto you, in- 
asmuch as ye have done it unto one of the 
least of these my brethren, ye have done it 
unto me." Gathering the children from the 



78 HIGHER GROUND. 

highways and byways, from the very gutter, 
rescuing them from vice and crime, putting 
them in the way of being useful men and 
women, — would this measure be pleasing or 
displeasing to the lowly Galilean who " went 
about doing good ? " Think of it, ye who 
would be his followers ! 

In a money way this measure would imme- 
diately improve the condition of the laboring 
man more than all the strikes and all the boy- 
cotts ever have improved it or ever can im- 
prove it. It would bring a thousand-fold 
more benefit than laboring men have ever 
asked for, sought for, or thought of. Intelli- 
gence and efficiency, and consequently com- 
fort, would become the heritage of the poor. 
This measure would substantially bring about 
the abolishment of poverty. 

This measure would settle all race ques- 
tions by making the colored people intelligent 
and efficient workers. Each individual colored 
man and woman who becomes intelligent and 
efficient solves the race question as to himself 
or herself. John H. Alexander, the colored 
youth who stood second in his class at West 
Point this year, has solved the race question 
for himself. " I expect," he says, " to receive 
a second lieutenancy in the Ninth Cavalry, 



THE LABOR QUESTION. 79 

where there are colored men. ■ I had not the 
slightest insult offered me at West Point on 
account of my color. Indeed, I think I was 
more leniently treated by my classmates than 
some white men. I minded my own business, 
and got along very well." 



80 HIGHER GROUND. 



XXXII. 

There is not a man, woman, or child in the 
country that would fail to reap benefit from 
this measure. The man who works for wages 
would have better wages. Taking all the 
young people under twenty out of the compe- 
tition as wage-workers would necessarily cause 
wages to rise. In any country new employ- 
ments are devised in proportion to the in- 
telligence and skill of the people. Indians, 
Spaniards, and Turks, because they are un- 
lettered and unskilful, never develop new 
employments. Americans, because they are 
intelligent and skilful, devise new employ- 
ments constantly. Raising the intelligence 
and skill of this people in the manner proposed 
would develop endless new employments to 
the immense advantage of everybody. 

And if the man who works for wages would 
have better wages, the man who has things to 
sell would have better customers. The higher 
men rise in intelligence and skill, the more 
they earn and the more they are able to buy. 
Every man who has things to sell is inter- 
ested in having the position of the laboring 



THE LABOR QUESTION. 8 1 

man improved. Commerce thrives, not on 
tramps, but on well-to-do customers. The 
position of a merchant who wishes a general 
reduction of wages is the position of a man 
who wishes to impoverish his customers. No 
man of sense would wish to impoverish his 
own customers. 



82 HIGHER GROUND. 



XXXIII. 

This measure would benefit the farmer and 
the man in active business as much as it 
would the mere wage-earner. There would 
be a better market for beef and potatoes, for 
groceries, for dry goods, for boots and shoes. 
The preacher and the doctor and the dentist 
would fare better. Everybody would fare 
better by reason of the immense amount of 
money that would be put into circulation. 
With the impetus that would be given to 
business by this measure, after paying ten 
per cent tax on a million the remaining nine 
hundred thousand dollars would bring in 
more income every year than the original 
million would have done. 

The immense amount of money which this 
measure would put in circulation would go 
into the hands of people who have little and 
are compelled to spend nearly all they have. 
As fast as collected it would go into circula- 
tion and make business brisk. Give a million 
of dollars to Mr. Jay Gould, and it enables 
him to corner more things. But divide a 
million dollars among ten thousand families, 



THE LABOR QUESTION. 83 

and it goes into circulation for the necessaries 
of life, and improves business. The laboring- 
man would profit much, the business man 
would profit still more, and the rising gene- 
ration would profit most of all. Peace and 
prosperity would settle down among us for- 
evermore, and they would be cheaply bought. 

Nobody need be afraid to have the condi- 
tion of the average man improved. Nobody 
will be the worse for it. Everybody will be 
the better for it. In the improvement of the 
condition of the common average man lies 
the hope of the world. This proposition does 
not mean that those who are up shall be 
dragged down ; it means that those who are 
down shall be helped up. It means not 
fewer, but more, ladies and gentlemen to the 
acre. 

If all the people were educated as I pro- 
pose, who would do the coarse drudgery ? It 
will be a long time before the world will be 
without multitudes fit for nothing but drudg- 
ery. The people with ability for nothing 
else but coarse drudgery would do it. The 
people who could find nothing better to do 
would do it. The world is full of such people 
now, and I fear it will always be full of people 
who will be glad enough to do the drudg- 



84 HIGHER GROUND. 

ery. Who shaves you ? Who shoulders your 
trunk ? Rarely men of American birth, be- 
cause they find ways of earning a livelihood 
more in accordance with their tastes. But 
barbers and porters abound everywhere ; and 
if a thousand times as many were needed, 
Germany would easily furnish the barbers, 
and Ireland the porters. 



THE LABOR QUESTION. 85 



XXXIV. 

The American method of righting things 
is by argument and by the ballot. It pre- 
supposes an intelligent population. The edu- 
cation which did very well a hundred years 
ago is not sufficient for us now. The facts 
upon which intelligence must act are much 
more numerous, and they are increasing every 
day. Our affairs are a thousand-fold more 
complicated now than they were then. 

In view of the difficulties which ignorance 
brings upon us, some would limit the right 
of suffrage to those who can read and write 
— as if those who can barely read and write 
are fit to have a voice in this government. 
The American remedy for ignorance is not a 
curtailment of rights and privileges. The 
true remedy for ignorance is to do away with 
it. The true remedy for ignorance is to pro- 
vide high and broad education for all the 
people. The American remedy for ignorance 
is not a curtailment of rights and privileges, 
but an enlargement of intelligence. 

Nineteen out of twenty American children 
begin the struggle of life without money. 



86 HIGHER GROUND. 

With the manual training school education, 
they would be far better fitted to begin life 
without assistance than if they had been edu- 
cated at Harvard or at Yale, because their 
acquaintance with things would be greater. 

The proposition which I have stated is to 
give to the son of Mr. Vanderbilt's brakeman 
an education as good for all practical pur- 
poses as Mr. Vanderbilt can give to his own 
son. The proposition means brains to the 
front, no matter where they may be found. 

The American idea is not to level men 
down to equality. The American idea is by 
means of intelligence to raise men up to 
equality. The carrying out of this proposi- 
tion would be a greater step forward than 
has ever been taken towards giving all men a 
fair and equal start in the world — towards a 
fair field for all and favor to none — towards 
practical human equality. The proposed 
measure is the necessary and logical sequence 
of the immortal Declaration of our Revolu- 
tionary forefathers. 

The American people educated in the 
manner proposed would be a people of in- 
telligence and efficiency such as the world 
has never yet seen. Only the very few would 
be ignorant and inefficient. The many would 



THE LABOR QUESTION. S 1 / 

be intelligent and efficient. This measure 
once enacted, all anxiety about the perpetuity 
of republican institutions would immediately 
cease. " The true principle of free and popu- 
lar government, ,, said Daniel Webster in his 
Plymouth Rock oration, " would seem to be so 
to construct it as to give to all, or at least 
to a very great majority, an interest in its 
preservation ; to found it, as other things are 
founded, on men's interests. . . . The freest 
government, if it could exist, would not be 
long acceptable if the tendency of the laws 
were to create a rapid accumulation of prop- 
erty in a few hands, and to render the great 
mass of the population penniless." 



88 higher ground. 



XXXV. 

Is there any danger in this proposition ? 
Do high-school graduates riot ? Is there any 
danger in general intelligence and general 
efficiency ? Is there anything unfair in this 
proposition ? Is it a scheme for the benefit 
of the few ? 

Would the nation get an equivalent for the 
money spent ? In return for the money spent 
the nation would get intelligent and efficient 
citizens, who, instead of waiting for something 
to turn up, would be able to turn up some- 
thing for themselves. The proposed measure 
means a population sufficiently intelligent and 
efficient to devise such legislation as shall 
put an end to the reign of the stock waterers. 
The proposed measure means that hereafter 
it shall be easier than now to acquire a com- 
petency by honest industry, — all the more be- 
cause it will be made more difficult to acquire 
millions by stupendous confidence games. It 
means fewer millions acquired by cruising 
close up under the walls of the penitentiary, 
fewer penitentiary millionnaires, fewer tramps, 



THE LABOR QUESTION. 89 

fewer paupers, fewer hovels, and a larger num- 
ber of comfortable people. 

It will be said that such application of pub- 
lic money is contrary to usage. Since when 
have we in this country begun to object to 
things because they are new ? Everything 
American is new. To govern by keeping 
men down is old. To govern by raising men 
up is new. Here, where everything is new, 
newness is not fatal. The only question that 
is to the point in this matter is, Is the pro- 
position based upon common-sense ? This is 
is the one blessed land under the sun in which 
one man with common-sense on his side is 
an eventual majority. 

But, says some objector, all Europe would 
pour in upon us to get the benefit of such a 
state of things. That would be nothing new. 
All Europe is pouring in upon us now. If 
immigration is undesirable and dangerous, we 
would do better to begin to do something about 
it immediately. Half a million of immigrants 
have already landed in this country this year, 
and before the year is out the number will 
run up to nearly a million. These people 
are coming here by reason of the superior 
chances in life already offered them. They 
are coming lured by better wages for the 



90 HIGHER GROUND. 

grown people and the common school for the 
children. They are coming because at the 
very ends of the earth, the lowest of the low, 
the commonest of the common, and the hum- 
blest of the humble have heard and believe 
and know that here among utter strangers 
they will be safer from want and starvation 
than in their native places among friends. 
They are coming because they have heard 
and believe and know that here we feed the 
hungry, clothe the naked, give land to the 
landless and homes to the homeless. They 
are coming because heretofore we have taken 
from their dark dungeons the dazed victims 
of oppression and set them in the sunshine 
and fresh air of American liberty. They are 
coming because they have heard and believe 
and know that heretofore we have given so 
fair a field to all that the sons of European 
peasants, with a thousand generations of 
hewers of wood and drawers of water behind 
them, have here become chiefs. From his 
native bog and into the steerage, out of the 
steerage and through the Castle Garden of 
his day, in rags and tatters, carrying all his 
earthly belongings in a pocket handkerchief 
on a shillelah, came the Irishman, whose son, 
Andrew Jackson, became the hero of New 



THE LABOR QUESTION. 9 1 

Orleans and President of the United States. 
If this immigration is undesirable and danger- 
ous it is undesirable and dangerous now, and 
something should immediately be done to 
stop it. But if this immigration is undesira- 
ble and dangerous now, the measure I propose 
would " out of this nettle danger pluck the 
flower safety/' by educating and American- 
izing the children of the immigrants. With 
or without additional inducements these peo- 
ple will continue to come. Meanwhile we 
are surely not to cease taking measures for 
our own betterment lest by reason thereof a 
greater number should come. If we do not 
want them, let us say so, and put an end to 
their coming. 



92 HIGHER GROUND. 



XXXVI. 

To whom would this measure bring suffer- 
ing ? To no one. The only objection to it, 
then, is that, like the school tax which is 
levied for the good of all, this measure would 
deprive the few of what they could well spare, 
— spare without suffering and spare with 
profit, because it would be found to be a good 
investment. Socialism proposes that all pro- 
duction and all distribution shall be done by 
the State, — the State to direct everything 
and everybody ; people are to eat what is set 
before them, wear what is issued to them, 
and do the tasks assigned them. High train- 
ing for all would cultivate and intensify 
individual bias, and render odious the bare 
thought of Socialism. Communism proposes 
that no individual shall own anything, the 
community everything. In proposing a plan 
whereby all may be made more efficient and 
thereby more able to acquire property, have I 
not proposed a state of things which would be 
the very reverse of Communism ? In show- 
ing how individual helplessness may be abol- 
ished, have I not proposed the very thing that 



THE LABOR QUESTION. 93 

would cause all agitation for communism to 
die out ? 

Some wiseacre will be sure to say that this 
proposition is communistic. This proposition 
is precisely as communistic as it is — and no 
more communistic than it is — to tax the man 
who has no children, in order to pay for the 
education of other people's children. Nearly 
all my life, having no children of my own, I 
have been made to pay taxes to educate other 
people's children. If this is communism, I 
approve of it. The school tax is levied to 
render more secure person, liberty, and prop- 
erty. The measure I propose is simply an 
additional means to accomplish the same 
end. 

Our school system is the national insurance 
company which insures us against lawless- 
ness and anarchy. The school tax is the 
annual insurance premium. What I propose 
is to strengthen the national insurance com- 
pany and to lessen the dangers against which 
it insures. If the school tax is communistic, 
then this proposition is communistic. If 
the school tax is not communistic, then this 
proposition is not communistic. If this propo- 
sition is communistic, then the proposition 
of the national Republican platform of 1884 



94 HIGHER GROUND. 

must have a strong leaning towards commu- 
nism. It says : — 

" We favor a wise and judicious system of gen- 
eral education by adequate appropriation from the 
national revenues, wherever the same is needed." 

There is no communism in the national 
Republican platform of 1884. Neither is 
there any communism in my proposition. My 
proposition has nothing in common with com- 
munism. Communism might solve the capi- 
tal and labor problem for a week, or a month, 
or a year, and then we should have the same 
problem back again. What we need, to solve 
the problem, is not a communistic distribution 
of property, which would not do it ; but what 
we must have, to solve the capital and labor 
problem effectually and permanently, is the 
greatest possible distribution of individual 
power and individual ability to acquire prop- 
erty. The greater the number of men who 
have property of their own, the smaller will 
be the number of men who will wish to divide 
things. 



THE LABOR QUESTION. 95 



XXXVII. 

This thing can be done by votes. It de- 
pends only upon ourselves. If we choose to 
take this thing in hand we can accomplish it, 
and we can accomplish it immediately. We 
are our own masters. This thing can be done 
locally, in each State separately. Any State 
Legislature can pass the necessary law, or if 
need be can pass and submit to the people 
of the State a constitutional amendment to 
carry into effect this measure. 

In this movement the laboring-men of the 
city would have the sympathy and co-opera- 
tion of the laboring-men of the country. The 
wage-workers of the city are not the only 
people interested in improving their own con- 
dition. The millions of American farmers 
will be as heartily for this measure as the 
wage-workers of the city. The proceeds of 
the tax would come mainly from the cities 
where the large fortunes are, and would in 
part flow out to the country, and give the 
country boys and girls an education and op- 
portunities in life such as they have never 
yet had. The farmer who raises corn, eats 
.coarse food, wears coarse clothes, and toils 



96 HIGHER GROUND. 

without ceasing for the lowest reward in this 
country, will be in favor of a measure which 
would give his children opportunities in the 
world equal with those of the broker who sells 
corn when he has none, and buys corn when 
he wants none, and thereby gets money where- 
with to clothe himself and his wife and his 
children in purple and fine linen and to 
fare sumptuously every day. It will be the 
farmer's very first chance to begin to get 
anywhere near even with the transporters 
and leeches who impoverish him and literally 
make him work for them. For thousands of 
years has been asked the question which the 
writer of Ecclesiasticus puts : " How can he 
get wisdom that holdeth the plow, that glori- 
eth in the goad, that driveth oxen and is 
occupied with the care of bullocks ? " Never 
before has the question been answered, but it 
is answered by the Manual Training School 
and the measure which I advocate. A strug- 
gle for higher intelligence and efficiency would 
command the sympathy of the whole Amer- 
ican people as nothing else would. The 
succession tax, and, by means of it, higher 
intelligence and efficiency for the people, 
would as a platform fire the land with 
enthusiasm. 



THE LABOR QUESTION. 97 



XXXVIII. 

Does the magnitude of the work appall ? 
Are we, the people, to be afraid of a great 
undertaking ? Are we not the same people 
who, only a few years ago, in a great cause, 
raised and kept on foot a million of men, at 
an expense of several millions of dollars each 
day ? Are we not the same people who have 
nearly paid the national debt ? On all the 
earth no other nation has ever done the like. 

On all the earth there has never been a 
higher aspiration for a people. On all the 
earth no other nation has ever set itself so 
high an aim. The proposition is that here 
and now, in our generation and upon our soil, 
shall begin to come to pass that better condi- 
tion for mankind whereof in their raptures 
poets have dreamed, for which in their agonies 
saints have prayed, for which upon the world's 
battlefields patriots have fought and bled and 
died. 

When upon this soil was born the first child 
of our race, the genius of America stood by 
the humble cradle and said : Unto you and 
your children forevermore do I give this noble 

7 



98 HIGHER GROUND. 

land. It is a land unequalled for resources ; 
manifold and plentiful shall be the harvests. 
There shall be enough and to spare for all, 
full measure, shaken down and running over. 
Hitherto the world has been full of strong 
government and weak people. In this land, 
in schools free for all, shall be taught ideas 
clear as diamonds and broad as the universe. 
Intelligence shall make the people strong, 
the people shall be the government, and the 
strength of the people shall be the strength 
of the government. There shall be a fair 
field for all, and favor for none. By doing 
noble deeds each man shall here at pleasure 
write his own patent of nobility. The sweet- 
est lay of the poet, the cunningest strain of 
the musician, and the never-ending note of 
the trumpet of fame shall be for the child 
of the humblest cottage. 



THE MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. 



A_ 



A man should have a farm or a mechanical craft for 
his culture. — R. W. Emerson. 

Let the youth once learn to take a straight shaving 
off a plank, or draw a fine curve without faltering, or 
lay a brick level in its mortar, and he has learned a 
multitude of other matters which no lips of man could 
ever teach him. — John Ruskin. 

The great question of the world is how to give every 
man a man's share in what goes on in life. Not a pig's 
share, nor a horse's share, not the share of a machine 
fed with oil only to make it work, and nothing else. It 
is n't a man's share just to mind your pin-making, and 
higgle about your own wages, and bring up your family 
to be ignorant sons of ignorant fathers, and no better 
prospect ; that is a slave's share. — George Eliot. 

If we ask a boy to take his place at a carpenter's 
bench, it is not that we wish to make a carpenter of 
him, but that we wish to make him more of a man. 
We know that there is only one chance in fifty that he 
will use the saw, the chisel, the plane, the hammer, as 
the tools by which he earns his bread ; but if he has 
had proper training in their use, he will carry to his 
work in life, whatever it may be, not only a better hand 
and a better eye, but also a better mind, a mind more 
perfectly filled and rounded out on all sides. — Francis 
A. Walker. 



THE 



MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. 



I. 

Yankee ingenuity is proverbial. The Yan- 
kee was made ingenious by the adverse cir- 
cumstances under which he existed. The 
main circumstance which made the Yankee 
ingenious was that whenever he wanted any- 
thing he himself had to make it or go without 
it. As the Yankee wanted a great many 
things he learned to make a great many 
things, and thus he became very ingenious. 
But adverse circumstances alone do not de- 
velope ingenuity. The North Carolinian has 
had adverse circumstances quite equal to 
those of the Yankee. Why has not he be- 
come ingenious ? Simply, because with his 
adverse circumstances the North Carolinian 
has not had the spelling-book and the New- 
England primer to stir up a circulation in his 



104 HIGHER GROUND. 

head. The saving element in the Yankee's 
adverse circumstances, which has made him 
ingenious, and from the lack of which the 
North Carolinian has failed to become ingen- 
ious, is the Common School. 



THE MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. 105 



II. 



The adverse circumstances under which 
each man had to make everything for himself 
have disappeared from this country. Instead 
of them has come the Manual Training 
School, which is a complete set of improved 
adverse Yankee circumstances for training 
the young in intelligence and ingenuity. The 
class which Professor Woodward of St. Louis 
graduated in 1883 introduced into the world an 
entirely new product. " Boys about eighteen 
years of age, who three years before had never 
touched tools with a view to becoming skilled 
with them, had drawn plans for several steam- 
engines. They had drawn the patterns on 
paper. They had made the patterns in wood. 
They had been forced to have the castings 
done by other hands, because there were in 
the school no facilities for making castings. 
They could have made the castings if there had 
been facilities for doing so. The boys had done 
the chipping and the filing and the lathe-work. 
They had put together their engines. They 
had connected them to a supply of steam, and 
at the word of command steam was turned on, 



106 HIGHER GROUND. 

and the engines began to run. In the educa- 
tion of these boys their purely mental studies 
had not been neglected." In the language of 
Mr. Dowd, the Superintendent of Schools at 
Toledo, all their manual exercises had been 
intellectual exercises, and they were ready to 
stand right up and be examined in books side 
by side with boys who had devoted all their 
time to books. 1 

3 See Appendix, VI. 



THE MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. 107 



III. 

At the present time the majority of children 
are taken away from school early in order to 
learn to gain their livelihood. Millions are 
thus kept in life-long ignorance. Parents 
take their children from school early now, 
not only to avoid the expense of keeping 
them there, but often because parents fail to 
see that more schooling would make their 
children better bread-winners. It is only 
reasonable to suppose that if the children 
could be taught at school more of that which 
would help them to gain their livelihood, par- 
ents would make far greater sacrifices than 
now to keep them there longer. 

Our need is something which shall keep 
the children at school throughout the public 
course, including the high school. This want 
is, as I believe, to be supplied by the Manual 
Training School. The Manual Training School 
is simply a high school with the manual feat- 
ure added. The manual feature can be added 
to any high school. From the experience we 
have already had, we know that the manual 
feature added to the high-school course will 



IOS HIGHER GROUND. 

fill the high schools and necessitate their mul- 
tiplication. The high schools are not full, but 
the manual training schools, in spite of high 
tuition fees, are full to overflowing. They are 
full of boys of whom at least one half would 
not have been in any school but for the man- 
ual training. When the curriculum of the 
manual training school, which embodies the 
production of superior bread-winning qualities, 
together with high mental training, shall in 
the public high school, free of charge, become 
the birthright of every child in the land, it 
will become clearer to all that more schooling 
will make better bread-winners. The bread- 
winning training will lure parents and children, 
and it will lure the children into superior intel- 
ligence. If the Manual Training School had 
no other justification, it would be amply justi- 
fied by its tendency to keep boys at school 
till the age of seventeen or eighteen. Keep- 
ing the boys at school till that age would 
give us intelligent citizens. It would raise 
immensely the general intelligence of the 
people. 



THE MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. 109 



IV. 

The late Secretary of the Interior, Mr. 
Teller, is reported to have said that if all the 
Indian children could have the moderate edu- 
cation which is given to only a few of them 
at Carlisle Barracks there would never be 
another Indian war. Leaving out of view 
all considerations of humanity, how much 
cheaper it would be to educate the Indians 
than it is to shoot them. It costs about 
$1,000 to train an Indian. It costs the lives 
of ten white men and thousands of dollars to 
shoot one. 

If all the Mormon children could have a 
complete high-school education there would 
soon be an end of polygamous Mormonism. 
Do you think the graduates of a high school 
would become plural wives ? Polygamy is 
possible only with extremely ignorant women. 
Rarely do any but the the most ignorant 
women found in this country become Mor- 
mons, and Mormonism is recruited most 
readily from European peasant women, be- 
cause to them even the polygamy of Utah is 
a promotion. 



HO HIGHER GROUND. 

If all the children in the land could have 
a complete high-school education there would 
be far less drunkenness than there is. The 
average man drinks in proportion to his igno- 
rance. The savage drinks all he can get. In 
drinking, the ignorant man in civilized life 
follows closely upon the heels of the savage. 
Intelligence develops tastes for better things, 
which conquer the brutal appetite for strong 
drink. 

This is a government by school-masters. 
If we had fewer school-masters we should be 
forced to have more policemen and more sol- 
diers. It is wiser, safer, better, and cheaper 
to train good citizens than it is to shoot bad 
ones. 



THE MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. Ill 



V. 

Benjamin Franklin said : " Empty your 
purse into your head ; then you can never 
lose your money, and you will always be sure 
of a high rate of interest." 

Thomas Jefferson said : " If a nation ex- 
pects to be ignorant and free in a state of 
civilization, it expects what never was and 
never will be." 

" Promote," said George Washington, " as 
an object of prime importance, institutions for 
the general diffusion of knowledge. ,, 

I firmly believe that the American people 
are ready to support a higher education. To 
do it is the interest of everybody. Commerce 
and industry profit by every step in the eleva- 
tion of man. Where men are ignorant and 
unskilled there is no commerce. The savage 
is not commercial. He is a poor customer. 
He has nothing to sell, and therefore he can 
buy nothing. The unskilled ignorant laborer 
in a civilized country is likewise a poor cus- 
tomer. He can earn but little, and therefore 
he can buy but little. The higher men rise 



112 HIGHER GROUND. 

in skill and intelligence, the better custom- 
ers they are. With every step in the eleva- 
tion of man commerce and industry increase. 
Commerce and industry therefore favor the 
highest possible elevation of all men. 



THE MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. 1 13 



VI. 

The Manual Training School teaches no 
particular trade. It teaches the rudiments of 
all the trades. At first blush it would seem 
impossible to teach a boy in three years, two 
hours each school-day, the rudiments of all 
the trades. The difficulty is smaller than it 
seems. There are only seven hand tools: 
the axe, the saw, the plane, the hammer, the 
square, the chisel, and the file. The graduate 
of a manual training school has not learned 
a particular trade, but he is within from one 
to three months of knowing, quite as thor- 
oughly as an apprentice who has served years, 
any one of twenty trades to which he may 
choose to turn. Having learned the use of all 
the tools, he can easily turn to any modifica- 
tion of them which he may need in any em- 
ployment. He is a superior draughtsman. 
He has an intelligence far beyond that of the 
average artisan, and the three years' appren- 
tice is in no wise to be compared with him. 
If thrown out of one employment by the 
invention of a machine, the graduate of a 
manual training school can easily turn to any 



114 HIGHER GROUND. 

other employment. The boy who has learned 
the use of all the tools has found out his bias, 
if he has any, and he can then go in the di- 
rection in which he is at his best. He need 
not go all through life working at a trade for 
which he is ill-fitted. The intelligence and 
diversity of skill acquired in the manual train- 
ing school make the boy a superior workman 
in any employment. 



THE MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. 1 15 



VII. 

The apprentice system was the old method 
for training skilled artisans, but steam has 
put an end to it. In a shop where steam is 
used it costs too much to make the wheels go 
round to permit an unskilled apprentice to 
use the tools. Nobody but a skilled workman 
can be permitted to use the money-eating 
tools driven by steam. Steam has killed the 
apprentice system. There is no place where 
an American boy can learn a trade except the 
penitentiary. 

The Manual Training School fills the place 
of the apprentice system. It much more than 
fills the place. It fills the place of the appren- 
tice system as the locomotive fills the place 
of the stage-coach. In other words, the Man- 
ual Training School fills the place of the 
apprentice system a thousand times over. 
The apprentice in a shop is a hewer of wood 
and a drawer of water, the last and least 
important individual in the shop. In the 
Manual Training School, on the contrary, the 
boy is the most important individual. He is 
the object for which the school exists. He 



Il6 HIGHER GROUND. 

is the material that is to be finished. Instead 
of being left to himself to pick up what he 
can, competent and intelligent instructors de- 
vote themselves to his training. The boy, as 
an apprentice, exists for the benefit of the 
shop. When the boy is a scholar in a man- 
ual training school, the shop exists for his 
benefit. 



THE MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. \\J 



VIII. 

Mr. Foley, who was for many years an 
instructor of forging, vise-work and machine- 
tool-work in the Boston Mechanic Art School, 
before becoming an instructor had served 
an apprenticeship of seven years, and had 
worked at his trade for several years. Mr. 
Foley has seen and tried both methods and 
knows whereof he speaks. He says : " It ap- 
pears like throwing away two or three years 
of one's life to spend them in attaining a 
knowledge of a business that can be acquired 
by a proper course of instruction in sixty 
days, two hours each day. The dexterity 
that comes from practice can be reached as 
quickly after the one hundred and twenty 
hours' instruction as after two or more years 
spent as an apprentice under the adverse 
circumstances of ordinary apprenticeship." 

The wonder is, not that boys so quickly 
learn the use of tools in a manual training 
school under competent instructors, but see- 
ing how easily they learn, the wonder is that 
anybody should ever have undertaken to learn 
the use of tools in any other way. 



Il8 HIGHER GROUND. 

The Manual Training School has come, and 
it has come to stay. For purposes both of 
education and of industry we shall abandon 
the manual training school method when we 
abandon the locomotive and go back to the 
stase coach. 



THE MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. 119 



IX. 

The drudgery of the apprentice tends to 
stupefy him. All work and no play makes 
Jack a dull boy. While the manual training 
requires as close attention as any study, it 
is nevertheless so complete a change from 
studying a book that in the midst of study it 
is in the nature of diversion and recreation. 
Was there ever a boy who did not delight in 
tools ? Last year the boys in the Chicago 
Manual Training School asked for a holiday 
Washington's birthday, and having obtained 
it, they immediately asked for permission to 
spend their holiday in the carpenter-shop of 
the school. 

Of course nothing can make a bright boy 
out of a dull boy, but there are bright boys 
not easily kept down to study who gladly 
swallow the bitter pill of study by reason of 
the delight which they take in the manual 
training. The editor-in-chief of one of the 
St. Louis daily papers told me some time ago 
that he had never been able to keep his boy 
in any school until he sent him to the St. 
Louis Manual Training School, but that now 



120 HIGHER GROUND. 

the boy cannot be kept away, and wishes that 
school kept Saturday and Sunday. It may 
be said with truth, both of bright boys and 
of dull boys, that the Manual Training School 
has a wider reach of allurement for their fac- 
ulties than any other school hitherto known. 



THE MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. 121 



X. 



There are people who are afraid that if a 
boy learns the use of tools he must necessa- 
rily be a mechanic, and can never rise in the 
world. The very first condition for rising in 
the world is knowledge of some sort. Many 
men are kept down in the world by ignorance 
and want of skill, but I have never yet seen 
any man or heard of any man who was kept 
down by knowledge and skill. 

We are asked, " Shall we train five hun- 
dred thousand mechanics where only fifty 
thousand can find employment ? " The an- 
swer is, that the education of the Manual 
Training School is not a mere training of 
mechanics. The Manual Training School 
educates boys, not to become mechanics, but 
to become men of intelligence and skill. It 
educates them so that they may have open to 
them a wider field of employment than they 
could have in any other way. It educates 
them so that they may have open to them all 
employments. Is there a farmer who would 
not be a better farmer with this training ? Is 
there a physician who would not be a better 



122 HIGHER GROUND. 

physician with it ? Is there a lawyer who 
would not be a better lawyer with it ? Is 
there any man, rich or poor, engaged in any 
pursuit to whom this training would not be 
an advantage ? The education of the Manual 
Training School will be just as serviceable 
for the four hundred and fifty thousand schol- 
ars who are not to be mechanics as it will 
be for the fifty thousand who are to be 
mechanics. 



THE MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. 1 23 



XL 

We are told that in our education we must 
emphasize the man and not the mechanic. 
Which plan puts the greater emphasis on the 
man, — the plan which educates the young 
only by means of books, or the plan which 
gives them an equal knowledge of books and 
a wide range of practical skill besides ? 

We are told that the practical education is 
not of the hand to skill, but of the brain to 
directive intelligence. Which plan is likely 
to produce the greater degree of intelligence, 
— the plan under the operation of which the 
children drop out of school at the age of ten 
or twelve, only a very few reaching the high 
school, or the manual training plan, which 
would keep the children at school through all 
the grades, and get them into and through 
the high school ? Manual training never 
means less education or less intelligence. 
Manual training always means more educa- 
tion and more intelligence. 



124 HIGHER GROUND. 



XII. 



The skill acquired in the Manual Training 
School is so valuable that it is not necessary 
to show that the mental progress of the scholar 
is as great as if he devoted all his time to 
books. But those who should know say that 
the mental progress is as great as if all the 
time were devoted to the study of books. 
There is nothing absurd in supposing that four 
and a half hours of mental work and two 
hours of manual training may produce quite 
as good mental results as six and a half hours 
of continuous book study. Surely no one will 
question that the mental training must help 
the manual training. I see as little reason to 
doubt that the manual may help the mental 
training. In the manual training school there 
is not a word spoken or a thing done except 
with a view to education. Mr. Goss, of Pur- 
due University, Indiana, well says that manual 
training is mental training by hand practice. 
He says that he considers an hour in the shop 
as valuable for intellectual training as an hour 
of book study, and two hours in the shop as 
valuable as two hours of study. 



THE MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL, 12 = 



XIII. 

Dr. Belfield, of the Chicago Manual Training 
School, says : " My opinion is that an hour in 
the shop of a well-conducted manual training 
school develops as much mental strength as 
an hour devoted to Virgil or Legendre. I 
am satisfied that three years of a manual 
training school will give at least as much 
purely intellectual growth as three years 
in the ordinary high school, because every 
school-hour, whether spent in the class-room, 
the drawing-room, or the shop, is an hour 
devoted to intellectual training. I am con- 
vinced that the manual training school boy's 
comprehension of some essential branches of 
knowledge will be as far superior to that of the 
ordinary high school boy's as the realization 
of the grandeur and beauty of the Alps to 
the man who has seen their glories is super- 
ior to the conception of him who has merely 
read of them." 

Professor Woodward, of the St. Louis Man- 
ual Training School, who has had thirteen 
years' experience, says substantially the same 
thing. 



126 HIGHER GROUND. 

The testimony of all teachers who have had 
experience in manual training is to the same 
effect. Pestalozzi, Frobel, and their thousands 
of followers, and the teachers of the thousands 
of Slojd Schools in Sweden and Finland all 
tell the same story. 

What manual training teachers say is that 
well on this side of the point where weariness 
begins manual training is equal to books for 
producing mental growth. In a manual train- 
ing lesson of two hours the average boy of 
fourteen keeps up a lively interest. Three 
hours would probably fatigue him. Carried 
beyond the point up to which a lively interest 
can be maintained, a lesson in manual train- 
ing is like any other lesson given to a fatigued 
scholar, — a mere waste of time. 



THE MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. 1 27 



XIV. 

The wealth of a nation depends upon its 
skill. Before the invention of canoes, fishing 
nets, bows and arrows, savages are uncom- 
fortably and pitiably poor. Without tools 
with which to get food they are always liable 
to starve. With the invention of canoes and 
nets, fishing gives them food and lessens their 
liability to starve. With the invention of 
bows and arrows, hunting gives them food, 
and with a little agriculture in addition they 
become reasonably secure from starvation. 
Thus human comfort depends upon human 
skill. A nation with little skill is poor. A 
nation with great skill is rich. Steam is the 
principal tool of modern times, and the nations 
are getting rich in proportion to their skill in 
using it. England is the foremost nation for 
skill in using steam, and England is the fore- 
most nation in acquiring wealth. We are 
next to England for skill in using steam, and 
we are next to England in getting rich. There 
are only sixty millions of us, but steam does 
the work of probably two hundred millions 
more. The result is an increase of wealth 



128 HIGHER GROUND. 

within our borders such as the world has never 
before seen. 

A Spaniard or a Turk has only one pair of 
hands for producing things. By means of 
steam an Englishman has industrially ten 
pairs of hands. An American in like man- 
ner has ten pairs of hands. Eventually skill 
and intelligence will bring us for every man 
a hundred pairs instead of ten pairs of hands. 
Increase of skill is worth struggling for. Every 
advance in skill increases the comfort of every 
man, woman, and child in the country. 



THE MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. 129 



XV. 

A hundred years ago nineteen out of every 
twenty men in this country were farmers. 
The proportion of farmers to the whole popu- 
lation has * decreased every day since ; it is 
now decreasing every day. The proportion 
of men engaged in the industrial arts has 
increased correspondingly, and is now in- 
creasing every day. 

As improvements multiply in agricultural 
machinery, a greater number of men can go 
into industrial pursuits and still leave the sup- 
ply of food ample. The McCormick reaper 
alone has liberated from farming millions of 
men. There is only just so much use for ag- 
ricultural products. When a man has had 
enough bread he does not wish any more. 
Enough is enough. Industrial products, on 
the contrary, are unlike bread, of which 
enough is enough. Of industrial products we 
want all those that we know of, we want all 
those that we have heard of, and we want all 
those that we have never seen and never 
heard of as fast as they can be invented. 
Alexander the Great never craved a fine 
9 



130 HIGHER GROUND. 

watch, simply because watches were not then 
in existence. Had they existed, Alexander 
would have wanted the very best watch that 
could be made. Our great-grandmothers never 
felt the need of sewing-machines, simply be- 
cause to them sewing-machines were incon- 
ceivable. Thirty years ago we never thought 
of riding in sleeping-cars, because there were 
none. A valuable invention, as soon as it 
is known, becomes an article of pressing 
necessity. We can never get a sufficient 
variety of industrial products. Our industrial 
wants are bounded only by the limits to 
human invention. 



THE MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. 131 



XVI. 

The destinies of the ancient world were 
moulded by soldiers and war. The ancient 
world came to an end and the modern world 
began with the steam-engine. The destinies 
of the modern world are moulded by me- 
chanics and machinery. Our nation of sixty 
millions is the offspring of the steam-engine. 
Only by means of steam could the many mil-, 
lions have been carried across the Atlantic 
and scattered all over the land. 

The representative man of the ancient 
world was the proud, fierce warrior, steel- 
clad, sabred, booted, and spurred, who made 
of the average man a cripple or a corpse. The 
representative man of to-day is the fustian- 
clad, humble, greasy mechanic, who makes 
this a comfortable world to live in. To the 
proud warrior belongs the dead past, with all 
its exploded stupidities. To the humble arti- 
san belongs the great future, with all the hopes 
of humanity. The humble artisan will yet in- 
vent a machine that shall do all the work of 
the world while he sits by with his hand on 
the valve reading his newspaper. 



132 HIGHER GROUXD. 



XVII. 



Skill with small intelligence increases very 
slowly. Skill coupled with great intelligence, 
like any other large capital, increases very 
rapidly. A century makes very little differ- 
ence in the skill of a tribe of Indians. Their 
intelligence is too limited. But look at the 
amazing increase of our skill during the 
last hundred years. What an increase of 
skill there would be if henceforth all the chil- 
dren could be educated in manual training 
schools ! During our war no man of sense 
wanted one of our armies to be commanded 
by a volunteer. From first to last, on both 
sides, the West-Pointers stood at the head. 
What West Point is to the army, the Manual 
Training School will become to industry, — 
and more, because it will train not only the of- 
ficers of industry, but likewise the rank and 
file. When this shall come to pass there will 
be no more tariff agitation in this country, 
because the skill developed will of itself for- 
ever put an end to all foreign competition 
upon American soil. 



THE MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. 1 33 



XVIII. 

Am I over-stating the effect upon indus- 
try of manual training ? It cannot be over- 
stated. Thirty years ago the French bought 
all their cotton goods in England. They then 
bought English machinery, brought over Eng- 
lish workmen to run it, established a training 
school for the cotton industry at Miilhouse, 
and now the finest cotton goods used in Eng- 
land and in this country are made in France. 
To sixpence worth of cotton the French add 
so much skilled labor that we pay them a 
dollar for it. They buy of us the raw ma- 
terial, and sell us back the finished product. 
To use the time-honored illustration, they buy 
of us the hide for a sixpence and sell us back 
the tail for a shilling. In like manner has 
France obtained control of her own market for 
watches by establishing schools for the watch 
industry at Besan^on and elsewhere. There 
are trade schools in every large city of France ; 
nearly every industry has its special schools ; 
and these schools are increasing, not only in 
France, but all over Europe. In fact, within 
the last ten years the Germans have been 
gaining upon the French by means of techni- 
cal schools. 



134 HIGHER GROUND. 



XIX. 



The Manual Training School reverses the 
cry that to compete in the markets of the 
world our labor must come down. The 
Manual Training School says, on the con- 
trary, that workingmen must go up higher. 
The meaning and intention of the Manual 
Training School movement are that working- 
men shall become more intelligent, more skil- 
ful, do better work, and earn more money. 
The Manual Training School preaches the 
gospel of the blue ribbon. Mr. Perrot, of 
Switzerland, came to this country in 1876 to 
exhibit his machinery for making watches. 
Landing in New York, he hastened to Phila- 
delphia to secure a place to show his wares. 
He was assigned space next to that of the 
Waltham Watch Company. He took just 
one look at the Waltham machinery, and then 
he telegraphed to his agent in New York not 
to permit his own machinery to be landed, but 
to send it back to Europe by the ship in 
which it had come. In the autumn Mr. Per- 
rot went back to Switzerland and told his 
countrymen that American workmen earned 



THE MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. 135 

three times as much as Swiss workmen, but 
that by reason of the intelligence and skill of 
American workmen, they were well worth 
their triple wages, and that, high as were 
their wages, Switzerland could never again 
hope to sell watches in the American market. 
We could not, if we would, compete in making 
labor come down. Europe can easily beat us 
at that. The downward competition is not 
open to us. I hope we shall never try to 
enter upon it. But with its despotisms and 
its armies, its debts and its ignorance, Europe 
has no chance in the upward competition. 
We can, if we will, raise the intelligence and 
skill of American workingmen, so that our in- 
dustries shall be above all competition. For 
a nation, as well as for an individual, there is 
always room higher up. 



n6 HIGHER GROUND. 



XX. 



Some time ago one of my friends told me 
of a mill in New England which made muslin 
selling at twelve cents a yard. By making it 
of a checkered pattern at an infinitesimally 
additional expense it sold quite as readily for 
twenty-two cents* At twelve cents the plain 
muslin had to compete with the plain muslin 
of the whole world. With a little originality 
of design added, it stood alone, by itself, 
without competition. " What do you mix 
with your colors ?" was asked of the painter. 
" Brains/' said the master, " brains." The 
more brains we mix with our industry the 
better it pays. Industry pays just in propor- 
tion as it is mixed with brains. 

Our industries are waiting for more skill. 
They are willing to pay and they can afford 
to pay any reasonable price for it. A few 
years ago we made in this country scarcely 
any carpets ; now we make so many carpets 
that we import scarcely any. But we still buy 
abroad the higher grades of carpets. The car- 
pet industry fails as yet in originality of design 
and the higher grade of workmanship. Within 



THE MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. 1 37 

the last five years the silk industry has tripled 
in this country. But we still buy abroad the 
higher grades of silk. Both the carpet and 
the silk industries are waiting for the design- 
ers and fine workmen who do not yet exist, 
but whom the Manual Training School must 
start on their career. 



138 HIGHER GROUND. 



XXI. 



The advantage in diversified employments 
is like the advantage there is in not carrying 
all one's eggs in one basket. Skill breeds 
diversity of employment, and the more diver- 
sity of employment there is, the fewer will 
there be of strikes and lockouts. If the men 
who are now engaged in making carpets and 
silks were still engaged in making cotton 
cloth, there would be an immediate over- 
production of cotton cloth and a strike and a 
lockout. The Manual Training School cre- 
ates skill. Skill increases and multiplies and 
produces diversity of employment. Diversity 
of employment prevents strikes and lockouts. 
The Manual Training School does not train 
mere mechanics. The mere mechanic is a 
man with only one skill. Any day a machine 
may come and do the only thing he can do. 
When the mechanic's one employment fails 
him he is helpless. Not so with the boy edu- 
cated in the Manual Training School. Help- 
lessness is not in his vocabulary. He has 
learned to think and he has learned to put his 
thoughts into things. His brain has learned 



THE MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. 1 39 

to plan, and his hands have learned to do 
what his brain plans. He has learned that 
things will yield, and he has learned how 
to make them yield. His intelligence and 
his skill fill him with power. He has ac- 
quired so much power that he will be his 
own master. He will never need to strike, 
and he will never be locked out. Of the 
kind who strike and who can be locked out, 
there are always too many in the world. Of 
the manual training school boy's kind there 
are never enough. By applying his brains 
and his eyes and his hands to books, to tools, 
to wood and to iron, he has mastered the 
great lesson of power. 



I40 HIGHER GROUND. 



XXII. 

So far as human problems are solvable, they 
are solvable by intelligence and skill. One 
thousand manual training schools in the land 
would not only do away with strikes and lock- 
outs, but they would solve the whole capital 
and labor problem. u Communism might solve 
the capital and labor question for a week or 
a month or a year and then we should have 
the same problem back again. But the Manual 
Training Schools would solve the capital and 
labor problem permanently by doing away 
with it. For the boys educated in the Manual 
Training School there will be no capital and 
labor problem. Wherever they go they will 
be able to achieve for themselves their due 
share of the good things of this world. What 
we need to solve the problem, is not a com- 
munistic distribution of property, which would 
not do it ; but what we must have to solve the 
capital and labor problem effectually and per- 
manently is the greatest possible distribution 



THE MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. 141 

of individual power and individual ability to 
acquire property. The greater the number 
of men who have property of their own, the 
smaller will be the number of men who will 
wish to divide things." 



142 HIGHER GROUND. 



XXIII. 



It is said that we cannot have manual train- 
ing in the high school until we can offer equal 
advantages to boys and girls. If it were the 
rule in this world, that nobody is to be com- 
fortable until everybody can be comfortable, 
nobody would ever be comfortable. The 
Manual Training School will eventually be as 
serviceable for girls as it is for boys. I think 
it will be thus serviceable for girls the very 
moment manual training is put into the high 
school. Women wisely do not always choose 
to stay within the limits men make for them. 
Being themselves chiefly interested, they pre- 
fer to try things for themselves. In Paris 
many women are now studying architecture. 
Many girls will be glad to avail themselves of 
all the instruction in drawing in the Manual 
Training School, and for their benefit the course 
in drawing may be extended. Many girls will 
undertake the course in wood-work as it is 
now, and for their benefit wood-carving may 
be immediately introduced. Nor must we 
forget that the average woman marries a man. 
Women have every reason to wish that the 



THE MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. 143 

average man may become more intelligent, 
more skilful, and more efficient. The women 
who are not to marry and who have their own 
way to make in the world have every reason 
to wish that the boys now growing up may 
qualify themselves for more virile employments 
than those of dry-goods clerks, notaries public, 
bookkeepers and the like, w T hich should long 
ago have been in the hands of women. Men 
and women are equally interested in putting 
manual training into the high school. 



144 HIGHER GROUXD 



XXIV. 

Can we afford to give to all the education 
of the Manual Training School at public ex- 
pense ? Training the young is the best in- 
vestment that can be made. Bring up a boy 
in a hovel in Ireland and he will grow up to 
come over here to dig and shovel at a dollar 
a day. His son, born in Chicago, takes in the 
spelling-book and some mechanical skill, and 
earns two dollars a day. The shoveller's 
grandson may go to the Chicago Manual 
Training School and thereafter earn from 
three to five dollars and upwards indefinitely, 
according to his capacity. The raw material 
capable of the greatest possible improvement 
is human raw material. The raw material 
that yields the greatest possible profit in 
being improved is human raw material. 
European nations spend millions in training 
their young men for war. We could well 
afford to spend equal millions in training our 
young men for peace. Rather than do with- 
out the intelligence and efficiency which man- 
ual training schools would brinsf us, we could 



THE MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. 1 45 

well afford, not only to establish the schools 
at public expense, but we could afford besides 
to pay to every scholar in them a salary to 
support him, as we do to every cadet at West 
Point. 



I46 HIGHER GROUND. 



XXV. 



The only objection that can be made to giv- 
ing every child in the land the manual train- 
ing school education is the expense. The 
answer to the objection of expense is that the 
education will bring us in return a hundred 
fold for every dollar we spend. Instead of 
impoverishing us, this education is precisely 
what will bring us wealth. When we come to 
understand how well it will pay in money to 
give every child the manual training school 
education, instead of doing it with reluctance, 
we shall do it with alacrity. This nation is in 
the very depths of poverty compared to what 
it would be if every child in the land were 
educated in the Manual Training School. 

Stanley says that there are forty millions of 
people on the Congo, all of them naked and 
poor. He says that the country in which 
they live is one of endless natural wealth. In 
the midst of all this wealth, the Africans are 
in the depths of poverty, simply because they 
are ignorant. 

This country, with all its immense resources 
was once in the complete possession of the 



THE MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL* 1 47 

Indians. The Indians did not get rich. They 
were not even comfortable. They starved 
and froze to death, simply because they did 
not know anything. We took their inheri- 
tance and with what little we know, see what 
we have done. 

It is not in what is in the earth, nor in the 
material things that are on the earth that the 
wealth of a nation lies. It is in the training 
of the brains of the people ; it is in the in- 
telligence of the people that the wealth of a 
nation lies. 



I48 HIGHER GROUND. 



XXVI. 

Ignorance and discomfort go together. In- 
telligence and comfort go together. With 
increase of intelligence comes increase of 
comfort. 

Only a few centuries ago nearly everybody 
was ignorant and nearly everybody was poor 
and uncomfortable. Only the very few were 
comfortable. Comfort was the exception. 
Hunger and nakedness were the rule. The 
sun shone then as brightly as it does now and 
the earth was as teeming and fruitful then as 
it is now. Our ancestors got less out of the 
earth than we do, because they knew less than 
we do. We get more out of the earth than 
they did, because we know more than they 
did. 

The way comfort has increased with intelli- 
gence proves that there is in this world an 
abundance for all who are fitted to get their 
share. One reason that so many people are 
uncomfortable is that they are not fitted by 



THE MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. 1 49 

their training to get their share of the good 
things of this world. With better training 
we should have a more comfortable world. 
With each step towards better training, we 
shall have a more comfortable world. 



150 HIGHER GROUND. 



XXVII. 

To leave the great mass of the people in 
ignorance is to leave them in hopeless poverty. 
To educate all is substantially to give equal 
opportunities to all. To educate all is to give 
comfort and prosperity to all. 

The education of the Manual Training 
School, so eminently adapted to the young, no 
matter what they are to do in life, we must give 
to every child. Not only must the Manual 
Training School be open to every child, but 
every child must have the benefit of it. Here- 
tofore in this country the aim has been to 
educate up to a certain point all the children. 
But the aim has been to give them as little 
education as the children could get along with. 
We must change this and give to every child 
all the education the child can take and all 
we know how to give. 

If our American civilization means anything, 
it means that the time shall surely come when, 
no matter what it costs to educate him, no 
child shall be left to grow up in ignorance. 



THE MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. 151 

If our American civilization means anything 
over and above and distinct from other civili- 
zations, it means that the earth and the good 
things of the earth are the heritage, not of 
the few, but of the many. 



152 HIGHER GROUND. 



XXVIII. 



To give to every child in the land the man- 
ual training school education is not as wild a 
scheme for us, considering our means, as it 
was for the puritan Pilgrims with their slen- 
der means to keep every child at school ; and 
that is what they did when New England was 
yet a wilderness and in the depths of poverty. 
This is the law under which they did it : 
" Every township, after the Lord hath increased 
them to the number of fifty householders, shall 
appoint one to teach all the children to write 
and read ; and when any town shall increase 
to the number of a hundred families, they 
shall set up a grammar-school." High above 
that of princes and kings and fighters of bat- 
tles, towers the fame of those grim old Puri- 
tans, and forevermore it shall increase and 
grow brighter. 

Green, the English historian, says that in 
the midst of the eighteenth century New 
England was the one part of the world where 
every man and woman was able to read and 
write. Has the common school of New Eng- 
land paid for itself? For answer look at the 



THE MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL, 1 53 

wealth of New England. If to-day the wealth 
of New England were in silver dollars, the 
silver dollars would almost outweigh the rocks 
of New England. 

The advent of the Manual Training School 
marks an epoch in our history. Like the 
Common School, the Manual Training School 
is an institution which the many will not per- 
mit the few to appropriate. It has in it that 
which will not only make permanent the in- 
stitutions we all love, but it has in it that w r hich 
will eventually produce the American ideal, — 
a nation without an ignorant man and without 
a pauper. 



154 HIGHER GROUND. 



XXIX. 

The individual requires intelligence to hold 
his own in the world, and our government 
requires intelligence not only in the few but 
in the many. Having solved the problem of 
managing a State without a king at the top, 
we now find that the ignorant man at the 
bottom of the State is almost as much of a 
nuisance as was the king. We find that we 
are governed by the ignorant man quite as 
much as we are by the intelligent man ; and 
rather more, because the ignorant man likes 
to govern us, and he is willing and can afford 
to devote all his time and attention to it. 

Our problem is at all hazards to get rid of 
the ignorant man. The most ignorant man 
in the State has a vote that counts for as 
much as the vote of the most intelligent man. 
What the most intelligent man in the State 
wants to accomplish for the good of every- 
body cannot be done until a sufficient number 
of ignorant men are convinced that it will not 
hurt them ; because not until they are con- 
vinced can a majority be got to vote for it. 



THE MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. 1 55 

As the strength of the chain is only equal 
to that of its weakest link, so the action of the 
government is constantly kept down towards 
the level of the most ignorant man in the 
State. I would not on that account deprive 
the ignorant man of his vote. Deprived of 
his vote he would be a man with a just griev- 
ance. In comparison with him, all the other 
people in the State would be a privileged 
class. No, I would not deprive the ignorant 
man of his vote. But I would so arrange 
things that his boys and girls should be sure 
to get the benefit of the Manual Training 
School. As to the ignorant man himself, 
eventually he would die, and under the cir- 
cumstances his kind would die out. 



156 HIGHER GROUND. 



XXX. 



The great advantage of self-government for 
which it is to be prized above all others is 
that it is a government of peace. The rule 
of the people means peace. The many are 
for peace and against war, because upon them 
war piles all its burdens and all its sufferings. 
On the contrary where the few rule, the very 
air is always full of war. The explanation is 
easy enough. War benefits and aggrandizes 
the few at the expense of the many. Nobles 
and princes, kings and potentates want fleets, 
and armies, conquests and glory. Being able 
to do as we like, having our own affairs in 
our own hands, knowing that if we dance, we 
ourselves must pay the piper, we seek no con- 
quests. We want no military glory. It is 
our aim to build up ourselves, not upon the 
ruins of other people's happiness, but by the 
peaceful, skilful, and intelligent use of what 
we already own and have within our own 
borders. Never before in the world has there 
been a nation at once so powerful and so 
peaceful as ours. What the average Ameri- 
can wants is in peace and plenty to live and 



THE MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. 1 57 

labor and love. That we prize the govern- 
ment which enables us to do this is not to be 
wondered at. 

The distance which our political system is 
ahead of even that of England is measured 
by the fact that if the two millions of men 
who have just been enfranchised in England 
had been on the coast of New England in 
1620, they would then and there have been 
enfranchised 266 years ago. 



I58 HIGHER GROUND. 



XXXI. 

Before landing at Plymouth, the Pilgrims 
on the Mayflower, in order to avoid all possi- 
bility of lawlessness, entered into an agree- 
ment amongst themselves concerning the 
manner in which their settlement should 
be governed. In this agreement each man 
pledged himself to submission and obedience 
to the laws that should be made in pursuance 
of it. The agreement reads like this : — 

" In the name of God, Amen : We, whose 
names are under written, the loyal subjects of our 
dread Sovereign, King James, having undertaken, 
for the glory of God and advancement of the 
Christian faith, and honor of our King and coun- 
try, a voyage to plant the first colony in the 
Northern parts of Virginia, do, by these presents, 
solemnly and mutually, in the presence of God 
and one of another, covenant and combine our- 
selves together into a civic body politic, for our 
better ordering and preservation and furtherance 
of the ends aforesaid ; and by virtue hereof, to 
enact, constitute, and frame such just and equal 
laws, ordinances, acts, constitutions, and offices, 
from time to time, as shall be thought most 



THE MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. 1 59 

convenient for the general good of the colony. 
Unto which we promise all due submission and 
obedience." 

That agreement instituted a government of 
the people, by the people, and for the people. 
It was the beginning of self-government in 
this country. It was the beginning of self- 
government in the world. 

There were forty-one men on board of 
the Mayflower, and forty-one men signed the 
agreement for self-government. No man was 
excluded because he was ignorant or because 
he was poor, or for any other reason what- 
ever. That agreement is to-day the high- 
water mark of the world's statemanship. 
What Gladstone is doing in England now is 
only a feeble imitation of what the Pilgrims 
did on the Mayflower. 



160 HIGHER GROUND. 



XXXII. 



Self-government was easily possible for the 
forty-one men who landed on Plymouth Rock, 
because they were intelligent men. Had they 
been ignorant men self-government would 
have been full of difficulty for them. Igno- 
rance becomes lawless and riots under cir- 
cumstances under which intelligence discusses 
and convinces others, or is itself convinced 
and holds its peace. Ignorance is the arch 
enemy of self-government. If self-govern- 
ment is to flourish, ignorance must go. Self- 
government implies that as all men must 
rule, all men must be trained so as to be 
fit to rule. For its own preservation and per- 
petuation self-government requires the highest 
possible elevation of all men. What fresh air 
and food are to the human body the school 
and the printing-press are to self-government. 
Untrained brain power is wasted brain power, 
and self-government cannot afford to let brain 
power be wasted. Any boy on the street, 
when trained, may be a possible benefactor 
of his race. Any boy on the street, when 
educated, may be a possible General Grant. 



THE MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL. l6l 

Self-government requires that all the Abra- 
ham Lincolns be brought out of the Ken- 
tucky log-huts and set to stir the high chords 
in the nation's breast. 

From Jamestown and Plymouth Rock down 
to the present moment the loftiest American 
thought is that in this country there shall be 
at the very earliest possible moment, free of 
charge for every child on the soil, the highest 
and best and most practical training the child 
can take and the world can give. The dream 
of commerce and industry is a land full of 
good customers. The dream of patriotism is 
a land full of free, intelligent and independent 
citizens. The dream of poesy is a land full of 
smiling, loving, happy homes. The dream of 
commerce and industry, the dream of patriot- 
ism, and the dream of poesy are all the same 
dream. 



ii 



APPENDIX. 



APPENDIX. 



From The Missouri Republican, January i, 1887. 

The past year will be forever memorable as the 
year in which private armies of mercenary soldiers 
began to be established in this country. In Italy 
this would have been an old story; in America it 
is quite a new one. There for hundreds of years 
cities, nobles, prelates, merchant princes, and 
guilds of craftsmen, as well as sovereign States, 
found it expedient, and, as they thought, profitable, 
to have at their command and in their pay com- 
panies of armed men whose trade was war, and 
whose swords were ready to be drawn in any cause 
which promised them the best pay. Public right 
seemed to have no competent arbiter, and private 
war became inevitable. The sequel was what 
might have been expected. The blood of Italy 
was shed to exhaustion by the swords and stilettos 
of her own hired bravos ; she became the easy 
prey of foreign foes, and fell into a state of degra- 
dation, which it took the pen of Gladstone to de- 
scribe, in the good days of King Bomba. In this 
country it has been fondly supposed that public 



1 66 HIGHER GROUND. 

law was strong enough to do right and maintain 
right between the citizens of whom the common- 
wealth has jurisdiction. That, it now seems, was 
an error. When a difference occurs between a 
great pork-packer and his employees, it is not to 
the State that either party has resort ; and to 
check apprehended violence the pork-packer finds 
it easier, and perhaps cheaper, to call out a regi- 
ment of hired soldiers, who have been armed and 
trained for the service of the highest bidder. We 
are by no means blaming Mr. Armour for hiring, 
nor Mr. Pinkerton for enlisting, such a regiment. 
We are simply pointing out that regiments of hired 
bravos are, in fact, openly enlisted, sold like Hes- 
sians, and sent into the field to serve whoever 
will pay best for them ; that a system of private 
war has thus been openly inaugurated; and that 
the State seems to assume that it is all right. 

There are always two sides in a war, whether it 
be a public or a private war ; and in private wars, 
the experience of the world shows that when the 
one side has the advantage of wealth and power, 
the other seeks the advantages which may be had 
by means of secret conspiracies and murders. 
Tyranny has been tempered by assassination in 
many other countries than Russia, and in so-called 
republics as well as in autocracies. There was 
never a time in the history of mankind more full of 
danger than the present from secret combinations 
of men who think themselves wronged by power- 



APPENDIX. 167 

ful enemies. These are days when one man may 
become a terror to thousands. Dynamite and other 
chemicals well known to science can easily over- 
come any disparity of numbers, and the dread of it 
can make the lives of kings and kaisers burden- 
some, until they fall, like the present czar of all 
the Russias, into frenzies of terror and wild rage. 
All that is needed is absolute secrecy in the con- 
spirators ; and although the secrecy of numbers 
of men in any enterprise is all but impossible, yet 
the failure of one conspiracy after another never 
checks the spirit of conspiracy when it has taken 
hold of any class of men. The history of the 
Italian Carbonari and the Russian Nihilists is full 
of frightful significance. It was in vain that hun- 
dreds of thousands of the former were, and it is 
now in vain that hundreds of thousands of the lat- 
ter continue to be, imprisoned, tortured, done to 
death in the most cruel ways of cruelty itself; the 
spirit of conspiracy is not repressed, — it spreads, 
and grows more cruel than its foe. What unimag- 
inable irony it would be if, in this democratic coun- 
try, the working class were to become infected 
with the spirit of conspiracy, so that the private 
armies of the capitalist were to be, not confronted, 
but circumvented and assassinated by invisible 
conspirators ! Of this incomparably execrable 
spectacle the present year has seen more than 
some faint suggestions. The spirit of conspiracy 
is abroad among our people. Corporations con- 



1 68 HIGHER GROUND. 

spire to rob us by systems of deliberate extortion ; 
politicians conspire to compel one class of the 
people to pay taxes to another by ruinous imposts ; 
the Anarchists of Chicago have learned that open 
murder is not safe for the murderers, but at the 
same time more than a million of workingmen 
have been learning the art of secret combination, 
— a lawful art, indeed, but one which lies only a 
step off from the arts of secret conspiracy. 

It is idle to say that workingmen shall not com- 
bine for the protection of their interests, while 
Jay Gould and his confederates shall be free to 
combine at pleasure to make workingmen pay him 
and them, throughout this bitter winter, $2.50 per 
ton for coal more than the coal is worth, and that 
under penalty of starving to death. We can have 
no laws in this country which shall not at least 
pretend to be equal for all. If secret combinations 
of extortion are lawful on the one side, secret 
combinations are equally lawful to resist them on 
the other. And if private armies for the service 
of rich men are to be allowed, private armed con- 
spiracies of other men will very soon make their 
appearance. What a spectacle of shame the whole 
thing is ! What a confession to the world of the 
failure of our institutions ! What a disgrace to 
the present state of our society ! What a presage 
of the future of our country ! Nothing will avert 
the threatening calamity but a stern resolve that 
no man nor combination of men shall usurp the 



APPENDIX. 169 

functions of the State, and that neither Philip 
Armour nor Jay Gould, nor any society of men 
whatever, shall wage private war in free America. 
But private war and dangerous combinations 
have at least a flavor of romance, and sometimes 
they have a pretext of justice, which blinds the 
eyes to their atrocity. The past year has developed 
something else which crawls with nothing but a 
spawn of filth. Private prisons have now been 
established under the control of private detectives 
who arrest men without warrant, confine them 
without let or hinderance, keep them in a torture 
chamber facetiously called a " sweat box," and 
carry them without question from city to city and 
from State to State ; who procure their own incar- 
ceration with indicted criminals to worm confes- 
sions from them, or learn how to concoct false 
testimony to convict them \ who, in short, usurp 
the place of law, defy the law, juggle with grand- 
juries, and laugh all rightful authority to scorn, 
until they choose to call upon the State to do 
their bidding. Have we, in good sooth, come 
to this, that lawful authority is so powerless and 
so contemptible that an unlawful procedure must 
be substituted for it in the hands of a paid volun- 
teer of private individuals ? If that is true, then 
we have entered on a revolution which will lead 
to worse things than the direst pessimist has yet 
dared to forebode. The whole condition of affairs 
as it is, and the worse condition into which we 



170 HIGHER GROUND. 

seem to be drifting, is simply appalling, and the 
question which will very speedily be solved is 
whether we are worthy of the heritage of law and 
liberty which was bought with blood by better men 
than we. If we are, the lessons of the past year 
will not fall unheeded. The people will be roused 
to that eternal vigilance which is the price of lib- 
erty, and loudly tell those whom it may concern 
that to usurp the functions of the State is high 
treason, and that the penalty of outraged sover- 
eignty shall be death. 

Extract from Editorial Article on " Pinkerto?tfs 
Men" in The Nation, New York, Jan, 27, 1887. 

It cannot be too soon or too well understood 
that, as an armed organization offering itself for 
hire for purposes of defence in various parts of 
the Union, Pinkerton's Men are, we must all ad- 
mit, the greatest disgrace that has befallen the 
United States. No such evidence of our internal 
weakness and lawlessness as the existence and 
activity of this organization constitutes has been 
offered to the world since the present Govern- 
ment was founded. Its appearance in any other 
civilized country would fill to-day every man in 
it with shame and astonishment. For it is — let 
nobody shrink from this plain truth — an unmis- 
takable sign of retrogression towards mediaeval 
barbarism. Pinkerton is neither more nor less 



APPENDIX. 171 

than the head of a band of mercenaries, such as 
each great landholder in the eleventh and twelfth 
centuries kept in his pay for the defence of his 
property and that of his vassals against the armed 
attacks of his neighbors. They are called into ex- 
istence by exactly the same causes now as then, — 
the absence of a public force capable of enforcing 
the law of the land, and affording security for life 
and property to the peaceable and well-disposed. 
Now as then, now as at every time since the 
dawn of civilization, no men of the Aryan race 
who have accumulated property of any kind will 
submit to be despoiled of it, or interfered with in 
the management of it, or allow any person or body 
of persons to "go upon them or send upon them," 
as the Barons said in Magna Charta, without try- 
ing to defend themselves. If there are courts, 
they will appeal to the courts ; if there are 
police, they will call in the police; if there are 
troops, they will ask for the troops to defend their 
rights under the law ; but if neither courts, nor 
police, nor troops will do anything for them, they 
will hire an army of their own. Of course, this 
is anarchy in its first stage. The word is not a 
pleasant one, but it must be used when the oc- 
casion calls for it. 



172 HIGHER GROUND. 



II. 

The following letter from Albert E. Macomber 
Esq., who is a member of the board of directors 
of the Toledo Manual Training School, explains 
itself : — 

Toledo, Jan. 6, 1887. 
My dear Col. Jacobson, — 

Your note of the 4th inst. is at hand. I send you 
the last report, which contains about all there is to say 
about this department. 

We secured last September a teacher from Mrs. 
Ewing's School in Iowa, — Miss Nellie E. Rawson. 
She is a bright young woman, a graduate of the Iowa 
State University, and thus comes to her work with no 
narrow preparation. She has three classes, of say six- 
teen each, — bright girls of the high-school age, who 
seem to be as full of enthusiasm for this instruction in 
practical cookery as the boys are in their line. 

Last month the morning class invited the Board of 
Education and the Directors of the Manual Training 
School to a supper spread in the class-room, — every- 
thing on the tables having been prepared by the pupils; 
and the table and service did them great credit, and 
was a surprise to most of the guests. 

Miss Rawson has been fully occupied with her classes 
in cooking, but next year a competent teacher will be 
secured to give instruction in garment-making. From 
our brief experience there seems no reason to doubt 



APPENDIX. 



173 



that the girls will take as kindly to this line of instruc- 
tion as the boys do, in the shops, to their work. It 
was found that the majority of these bright girls were 
utterly ignorant of the first principles of practical 
household work, and it is evident that a School of 
Domestic Economy has just as wide a field of useful- 
ness before it as the Manual Training School for 
Boys. 

Very respectfully yours, 

A. E. Macomber. 



\Tole do Manual Training School Catalogue, 1887.] 

COURSE OF COMBINED STUDY AND TRAINING 
FOR GIRLS. 

Domestic Economy Department. 



FIRST YEAR. 

( I . ) Mathematics. — Arithmetic. 

(2.) Science. — Physical Geography. 

(3.) Language. — Grammar, Spelling, Writ- 
ing, English composition. 

(4.) Drawing. — Free Hand and Mechanical, 
Lettering. 

(5.) Domestic Economy. — Care and use of 
tools, and how to handle them. Light 
Carpentry, Wood- Carving. 



Senior 

Grammar 

School. 

Manual 
Training 
School. 



SECOND YEAR. 

(1.) Mathematics. — Algebra, Arithmetic. 
(2.) Science. — Physiology and Botany. 
(3.) Language. — Grammar, Rhetoric, Writ- 
ing. 



Junior 

High 

School. 



174 



HIGHER GROUND. 



(4.) Drawing. — Free Hand and Mechanical. 
Designs for Wood-Carving. Clay-Mod- 
elling. 

($.) Domestic Economy. — Introduction to 
course in Cooking, or Garment Cutting 
and Making. Use of Household Tools. 
Light Shop-work. 



Manual 
Training 
School. 



THIRD YEAR. 

(1.) Mathematics. — Geometry, Arithmetic 
reviewed. 

(2.) Science. — Physics. 

(3.) Language. — English, Composition, His- 
tory. 

(4.) Drawing. — Free Hand and Architec- 
tural, Designing from Plant and Leaf 
Forms. 

(5.) Domestic Economy. — Instruction in Pre- 
paring and Cooking Food, Purchasing 
Household Supplies, Care of the Sick, 
etc. 



Middle 
High 

School. 



Manual 

Training 

School. 



FOURTH YEAR. 

( I .) Mathematics. — Plane Trigonometry, Me- 
chanics. 

(2.) Science. — Chemistry, Book-keeping, Eth- 
ics ; Rights and Duties, Laws of Right 
Conduct. 

(3.) Language. — Political Economy, English 
Literature and Composition. 

(4.) Drawing. — Machine and Architectural 
Details, Decorative Designing. 

(5.) Domestic Economy. — Cutting, Making, 
and Fitting of Garments, Household 
Decorations, Typewriting, etc. 



Senior 

High 

School. 



Manual 

Training 

School. 



APPENDIX. 175 

The above course in Domestic Economy is ar- 
ranged with special reference to giving young 
women such a liberal and practical education as 
will inspire them with a belief in the dignity and 
nobleness of an earnest womanhood, and incite 
them to a faithful performance of the every-day 
duties of life ; it is based upon the assumption 
that a pleasant home is an essential element of 
broad culture, and one of the surest safeguards of 
morality and virtue. 

The design of this course is to furnish thorough 
instructions in applied housekeeping and the 
sciences relating thereto, and students will receive 
practical drill in all branches of housework, in 
the purchase and care of family supplies, and in 
general household management ; but will not be 
expected to perform more labor than is actually 
necessary for the desired instruction. 

In cookery practical instructions will be given 
in the means employed in boiling, broiling, 
baking, frying, and mixing, as follows : — 

Boiling. — Practical illustrations of boiling and 
steaming, and treatment of vegetables, meats, fish, 
and cereals, soup-making, etc. 

Broiling. — - Lessons and practice in : meat, 
chicken, fish, oysters, etc. 

Bread-Making. — Chemical and mechanical 
action of materials used. Manipulations in bread- 
making in its various departments. Yeasts and 
their substitutes. 



176 HIGHER GROUND, 

Baking. — Heat in its action on different ma- 
terials in the process of baking. Practical ex- 
periments in baking bread, pastry, puddings, cake, 
meats, fish, etc. 

Frying. — Chemical and mechanical principles 
involved and illustrated in the frying of vege- 
tables, meats, fish, oysters, etc. 

Mixing. — The art of making combinations, as 
in soups, salads, puddings, pies, cakes, sauces, 
dressings, flavorings, condiments, etc. 

Marketing and Economy, Etc. — The selec- 
tion, and purchase of household supplies. Gen- 
eral instructions in systematizing and economiz- 
ing household work and expenses. The anatomy 
of animals used as food, and how to choose and 
use the several parts. Lessons on the qualities of 
water and steam ; the construction of stoves and 
ranges ; the properties of different fuels. 

The Textile Fabric Work will cover instruc- 
tions in garment cutting and making; the eco- 
nomical and tasteful use of materials ; millinery, 
etc. 

the domestic economy department. 

Opposite to the drawing-rooms on the fourth 
floor, and occupying the whole of the west half of 
the building, are the cooking-class and the textile 
fabric rooms, lighted in the same manner as the 
drawing-rooms, warmed by steam, and perfectly 
ventilated. 



APPENDIX. 177 

THE COOKING-ROOM. 

This is 40x27 feet, with one large Garland 
Range, and two gas cooking-stoves, five double 
tables 5 ft. long by 5 ft. wide, each table to ac- 
commodate four pupils, each with her own table 
space for work, and a small gas-stove on the table 
between each two, — the accommodations being for 
classes of twenty. Each table space has a drawer 
and cupboard below it for all essential utensils, 
and each pupil must personally go through every 
process taught. At the other end of the room 
are pantry closets for teachers' use, and a com- 
modious wash-room with all conveniences for girls, 
including individual closets for each to keep 
aprons, clothes, etc. 

THE TEXTILE FABRIC ROOM. 

This is also 40x27 feet, in the north part of 
the building. The furniture and appliances for 
teaching domestic handiwork in the cutting and 
making of garments, upholstery, house-furnishing, 
hand and machine sewing, etc., and teachers for 
the same will be provided for the school-year 
beginning September 5, 1887. 

In arranging the laboratory work for boys, 
the methods of the St. Louis Manual Training 
School under Dr. C. M. Woodward have been 
closely followed, while the Department of Do- 
mestic Economy has been mainly indebted to 



I78 HIGHER GROUND. 

Mrs. Emma P. Ewing, Dean of the School of 
Domestic Economy, of Iowa State College at 
Ames, Iowa. 



Fro77i the Rep07't of the Directors of the Toledo 
Manual Trai7iing School to the Mayor and 
Commo7i Coimcil of the City. 

Since the last report the Department of Do- 
mestic Economy has received the earnest atten- 
tion of your Directors. 

It became apparent that not only abstract 
justice but an enlightened public sentiment de- 
manded that the opportunities for industrial 
instruction for girls should be as ample and 
complete as that contemplated for boys. 

While the. work of this department was not 
wholly without precedent, yet your Directors 
deemed it wise to call to their aid an advisory 
council of ladies to assist in maturing the general 
plan and details of such instruction ; and the ad- 
vice and direction of such council has been of 
value in the organization of this department. 

Two large and well-lighted rooms on the upper 
floor of the new building have been set apart for 
this work, one of which has been furnished with 
all needed appliances for practical instruction in 
cookery. 

A skilful teacher, Miss N. E. Rawson, a pupil 
of Mrs. Ewing of the Iowa State College, has 



APPENDIX. 179 

been secured, and instruction in cookery is now 
furnished to large and enthusiastic classes. 

The Department of Domestic Economy has 
been received with great favor and support, and 
promises to meet the full expectations of those 
who most warmly encouraged its establishment. 
The instruction in cookery has proved of great 
practical value. Next school-year instruction will 
be furnished in cutting and garment making. 



180 HIGHER GROUND. 

III. 

LAWS OF NEW YORK. 

[Chapter 483.] 

An Act to tax gifts, legacies, and collateral inheri- 
tances in certain cases. {Passed June 10, 1885 ; 
three fifths being present.} 

The People of the State of New York, represented 
in Senate and Assembly, do enact as follows : — 

Sect. i. After the passage of this act, all prop- 
erty which shall pass by will or by the intestate 
laws of this State from any person who may die 
seized or possessed of the same while being a resi- 
dent of the State, or which property shall be within 
this State, or any part of such property, or any in- 
terest therein, or income therefrom, transferred by 
deed, grant, sale, or gift made or intended to take 
effect in possession or enjoyment after the death 
of the grantor or bargainor, to any person or per- 
sons, or to a body politic or corporate, in trust or 
otherwise, or by reason whereof any person, or 
body politic or corporate shall become beneficially 
entitled, in possession or expectancy, to any prop- 
erty, or to the income thereof, other than to or for 
the use of father, mother, husband, wife, children, 
brother and sister, and lineal descendants born in 
lawful wedlock, and the wife or widow of a son 



APPENDIX. 181 

and the husband of a daughter, and the societies, 
corporations, and institutions now exempted by 
law from taxation, shall be and is subject to a tax 
of five dollars on every hundred dollars of the 
clear market value of such property and at and 
after the same rate for any less amount, to be paid 
to the treasurer of the proper county, and in the 
city and county of New York to the comptroller 
thereof, for the use of the State, and all adminis- 
trators, executors and trustees shall be liable for 
any and all such taxes until the same shall have 
been paid, as hereinafter directed ; provided that 
an estate which may be valued at a less sum than 
five hundred dollars shall not be subject to said 
duty or tax. 

Sect. 2. When any person shall bequeath or 
devise any property, or interest therein, or income 
therefrom, to a father, mother, husband, wife, chil- 
dren, brother, and sister, the widow of a son, or 
a lineal descendant, during life or for a term of 
years, and the remainder to a collateral heir of 
the decedent, or to a stranger in blood, or to a 
body politic or corporate at their decease, or on 
the expiration of such term, the property so pass- 
ing shall be appraised immediately after the death 
of the decedent, at what was the fair market 
value thereof at the time of the death of the 
decedent, in the manner hereinafter provided, and 
after deducting therefrom the value of said life 
estate, or term of years, the tax prescribed by 



1 82 HIGHER GROUND. 

this act on the remainder shall be immediately 
due and payable to the treasurer of the proper 
county, and in the city and county of New York 
to the comptroller thereof, and, together with 
the interest thereon, shall be and remain a lien 
on said property until the same is paid ; pro- 
vided that the person or persons, or body politic 
or corporate beneficially interested in the property 
chargeable with said tax may elect not to pay the 
same until they shall come into the actual posses- 
sion or enjoyment of such property, or, and in 
that case, such person or persons, or body politic 
or corporate, shall give a bond to the people of 
the State of New York in a penalty three times 
the amount of the tax arising upon personal estate, 
with such sureties as the said surrogate may ap- 
prove, conditioned for the payment of said tax 
and interest thereon, at such time or period as 
they or their representatives may come into the 
actual possession or enjoyment of such property, 
which bond shall be filed in the office of the sur- 
rogate of the proper county; provided, further, 
that such person shall make a full verified return 
of such property to said surrogate, and file the 
same in his office within one year from the death 
of the decedent and within that period enter 
into such security and renew the same every 
five years. 

Sect. 3. Whenever a decedent appoints or 
names one or more executors or trustees and 



APPENDIX. 183 

makes a bequest or devise of property to them 
in lieu of their commissions or allowances which 
otherwise would be liable to said tax, or appoints 
them his residuary legatees, and said bequest, de- 
vises, or residuary legacies exceed what would be 
a reasonable compensation for their services, such 
excess shall be liable to said tax, and the surro- 
gate's court having jurisdiction in the case shall 
fix such compensation. 

Sect. 4. All taxes imposed by this act, unless 
otherwise herein provided for, shall be due and 
payable at the death of the decedent, and if the 
same are paid within one year, interest at the 
rate of six per cent per annum shall be charged 
and collected thereon, but if not so paid, interest 
at the rate of ten per cent per annum shall be 
charged and collected from the time said tax 
accrued ; provided, that if said tax is paid within 
six months from the accruing thereof, interest 
shall not be charged or collected thereon, but a 
discount of five per cent shall be allowed and de- 
ducted from said tax, and in all cases where the 
executors, administrators, or trustees do not pay 
such tax within one year from the death of the 
decedent, they shall be required to give a bond 
in the form and to the effect prescribed in section 
two of this act for the payment of said tax, to- 
gether with interest. 

Sect. 5. The penalty of ten per cent per an- 
num imposed by section four hereof for the non- 



1 84 HIGHER GROUND. 

payment of said tax, shall not be charged where 
in cases by reason of claims made upon the 
estate, necessary litigation or other unavoidable 
cause of delay, the estate of any decedent, or a 
part thereof, cannot be settled at the end of a 
year from the death of the decedent, and in 
such cases only six per cent per annum shall be 
charged upon the said tax from the expiration 
of such year until the cause of such delay is 
removed. 

Sect. 6. Any administrator, executor, or trus- 
tee having in charge or trust any legacy or prop- 
erty for distribution subject to the said tax shall 
deduct the tax therefrom, or if the legacy or prop- 
erty be not money, he shall collect the tax thereon, 
upon the appraised value thereof, from the legatee 
or person entitled to such property, and he shall 
not deliver or be compelled to deliver any specific 
legacy or property subject to tax to any person, 
until he shall have collected the tax thereon ; and 
whenever any such legacy shall be charged upon 
or payable out of real estate, the heir or devisee, 
before paying the same, shall deduct said tax 
therefrom, and pay the same to the executor, ad- 
ministrator, or trustee, and the same shall remain 
a charge on such real estate until paid, and the 
payment thereof shall be enforced by the execu- 
tor, administrator, or trustee in the same manner 
that the payment of such legacy might be en- 
forced; if, however, such legacy be given in 



APPENDIX. 185 

money to any person for a limited period, he shall 
retain the tax upon the whole amount, but if it 
be not in money, he shall make application to 
the court having jurisdiction of his accounts, to 
make an apportionment, if the case require it, of 
the sum to be paid into his hands by such lega- 
tees, and for such further order relative thereto as 
the case may require. 

Sect. 7. All executors, administrators, and trus- 
tees shall have full power to sell so much of the 
property of the decedent as will enable them to 
pay said tax, in the same manner as they may be 
enabled by law to do for the payment of debts of 
their testators and intestates, and the amount of 
said tax shall be paid as hereinafter directed. 

Sect. 8. Every sum of money retained by any 
executor, administrator, or trustee, or paid into 
his hands for any tax on any property, shall be 
paid by him, within thirty days thereafter, to the 
treasurer of the proper county, or in the city and 
county of New York, to the comptroller thereof, 
and the said treasurer or comptroller shall give, 
and every executor, administrator, or trustee shall 
take, duplicate receipts from him of such pay- 
ment, one of which receipts he shall immediately 
send to the comptroller of the State, whose duty 
it shall be to charge the treasurer or comptroller 
so receiving the tax with the amount thereof, and 
shall seal said receipt with the seal of his office, 
and countersign the same and return it to the ex- 



1 86 HIGHER GROUND. 

ecutor, administrator, or trustee, whereupon it 
shall be a proper voucher in the settlement of 
his accounts \ but an executor, administrator, or 
trustee shall not be entitled to credit in his ac- 
counts nor be discharged from liability for such 
tax unless he shall produce a receipt so sealed 
and countersigned by the comptroller, or a copy 
thereof certified by him. 

Sect. 9. Whenever any of the real estate of 
which any decedent may die seized shall pass to 
any body politic or corporate, or to any person 
or persons other than the father, mother, husband, 
wife, lawful issue, wife or widow of a son, or hus- 
band of a daughter, or in trust for them, or some 
of them, it shall be the duty of the executors, ad- 
ministrators, or trustees of such decedent to give 
information thereof in writing to the treasurer or 
comptroller of the county where such real estate 
is situate, within six months after they undertake 
the execution of their respective duties, or, if the 
fact be not known to them within that period, 
then within one month after the same shall have 
come to their knowledge. 

Sect. 10. Whenever any debts shall be proven 
against the estate of a decedent, after the pay- 
ment of legacies or distribution of property, from 
which the said tax has been deducted, or upon 
which it has been paid, and a refund is made by 
the legatee, devisee, heir or next of kin, a pro- 
portion of the tax so paid shall be repaid to him 



APPENDIX. 187 

by the executor, administrator, or trustee, if the 
said tax has not been paid to the county treasurer, 
comptroller, or to the State treasurer, or by them 
if it has been so paid. 

Sect. ii. Whenever any foreign executor or ad- 
ministrator shall assign or transfer any stocks or 
loans in this State, standing in the name of a de- 
cedent, or in trust for a decedent, which shall 
be liable to the said tax, such tax shall be paid to 
the treasurer or comptroller of the proper county 
on the transfer thereof, otherwise the corporation 
permitting such transfer shall become liable to 
pay such tax, provided that such corporation has 
knowledge before such transfer that said stocks or 
loans are liable to said tax. 

Sect. 12. When any amount of said tax shall 
have been paid erroneously to the State treasurer, 
it shall be lawful for him, on satisfactory proof 
rendered to the comptroller by said county treas- 
urer or comptroller of such erroneous payment, to 
refund and pay to the executor, administrator, per- 
son, or persons who have paid any such tax in 
error, the amount of such tax so paid, provided 
that all such applications for the repayment of 
such tax shall be made within two years from the 
date of such payment. 

Sect. 13. In order to fix the value of property 
of persons whose estates shall be subject to the 
payment of said tax, the surrogate, on the appli- 
cation of any interested party, or upon his own 



1 88 HIGHER GROUND. 

motion shall appoint some competent person as 
appraiser as often as, and whenever occasion may 
require, whose duty it shall be forthwith to give 
such notice by mail, and to such persons as the 
surrogate may by order direct, of the time and 
place he will appraise such property ; and at such 
time and place to appraise the same at its fair 
market value, and make a report thereof in writing 
to said surrogate, together with such other facts in 
relation thereto as said surrogate may by order 
require to be filed in the office of such surrogate ; 
and from this report the said surrogate shall forth- 
with assess and fix the then cash value of all 
estates, annuities, and life estates, or term of 
years growing out of said estate, and the tax to 
which the same is liable, and shall immediatelv 
give notice thereof by mail to all parties known to 
be interested therein. Any person or persons dis- 
satisfied with said appraisement or assessment 
may appeal therefrom to the surrogate of the 
proper county within sixty days after the making 
and filing of such assessment, on paying, or giving 
security approved by the surrogate to pay all 
costs, together with whatever tax shall be fixed 
by said court. The said appraiser shall be paid 
by the county treasurer or comptroller out of any 
funds he may have in his hands on account of said 
tax, on the certificate of the surrogate, at the rate 
of three dollars per day for every day actually and 
necessarily employed in said appraisement, to- 



APPENDIX. 189 

gether with his actual and necessary travelling 
expenses. 

Sect. 14. Any appraiser appointed by virtue of 
this act who shall take any fee or reward from any 
executor, administrator, trustee, legatee, next of 
kin or heir of any decedent, or from any other per- 
son liable to pay said tax or any portion thereof, 
shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon con- 
viction in any court having jurisdiction of mis- 
demeanors he shall be fined not less than two 
hundred and fifty dollars nor more than five hun- 
dred dollars, and imprisoned not exceeding ninety 
days ; and in addition thereto the surrogate shall 
dismiss him from such service. 

Sect. 15. The surrogate's court in the county 
in which the real property is situate of a decedent 
who was not a resident of the State, or in the 
county of which the decedent was a resident at 
the time of his death, shall have jurisdiction to 
hear and determine all questions in relation to 
the tax arising under the provisions of this act, 
and the surrogate first acquiring jurisdiction here- 
under shall retain the same to the exclusion of 
every other. 

Sect. 16. If it shall appear to the surrogate's 
court that any tax accruing under this act has 
not been paid according to law, it shall issue a 
citation citing the persons interested in the prop- 
erty liable to the tax to appear before the court 
on a day certain, not more than three months after 



190 HIGHER GROUND. 

the date of such citation, and show cause why said 
tax should not be paid. The service of such cita- 
tion, and the time, manner, and proof thereof and 
fees therefor, and the hearing and determina- 
tion thereon, and the enforcement of the determi- 
nation or decree shall conform to the provisions 
of the Code of Civil Procedure for the service of 
citations now issuing out of surrogate's courts, 
and the hearing and determination thereon and its 
enforcement. And the surrogate or clerk of the 
surrogate's court shall, upon the request of the 
district attorney, treasurer of the county, or comp- 
troller of the county of New York, furnish, with- 
out fee, one or more transcripts of such decree, 
as provided in section twenty-five hundred and 
fifty-three of the Code of Civil Procedure, and the 
same shall be docketed and filed by the county 
clerk of any county in the State without fee in 
the same manner and with the same effect as 
provided by said section for filing and docketing 
transcripts of decrees of such courts. 

Sect. 17. Whenever the treasurer or comptrol- 
ler of any county shall have reason to believe 
that any tax is due and unpaid under this act 
after the refusal or neglect of the persons inter- 
ested in the property liable to said tax to pay the 
same, he shall notify the district attorney of the 
proper county, in writing, of such failure to pay 
such tax, and the district attorney so notified, if he 
have probable cause to believe a tax is due and un- 



APPENDIX. 191 

paid, shall prosecute the proceedings in the surro- 
gate's court in the proper county, as provided in 
section sixteen of this act, for the enforcement and 
collection of such tax. All costs awarded by such 
decree that may be collected after the collection 
and payment of the tax to the treasurer or comp- 
troller of the proper county may be retained by 
the district attorney hereafter elected or appointed 
for his own use. 

Sect. 18. The surrogate and county clerk of 
each county shall, every three months, make a 
statement in writing to the county treasurer or 
comptroller of his county of the property from 
which or the party from whom he has reason to 
believe a tax under this act is due and unpaid. 

Sect. 19. Whenever the surrogate of any county 
shall certify that there was probable cause for 
issuing a citation and taking the proceedings 
specified in section sixteen of this act, the State 
treasurer shall pay or allow to the treasurer or 
comptroller of any county all expenses incurred 
for services of citation and his other lawful dis- 
bursements that have not otherwise been paid. 

Sect. 20. The comptroller of the State shall 
furnish to each surrogate a book in which he 
shall enter the returns made by appraisers, the 
cash value of annuities, life estates, and terms of 
years and other property fixed by him, and the 
tax assessed thereon and the amounts of any re- 
ceipts for payments thereon filed with him, which 



I92 HIGHER GROUND. 

books shall be kept in the office of the surrogate 
as a public record. 

Sect. 21. The treasurer of each county and the 
comptroller of the county of New York, shall 
collect and pay the State treasurer all taxes that 
may be due and payable under this act, who 
shall give him a receipt therefor, of which collec- 
tion and payment he shall make a report under 
oath to the comptroller on the first Monday in 
March and September of each year, stating for 
what estate paid, and in such form and containing 
such particulars as the comptroller may prescribe ; 
and for all such taxes collected by him and not 
paid to the State treasurer by the first day of 
October and April of each year, he shall pay in- 
terest at the rate of ten per cent per annum. 

Sect. 22. The treasurer of each county and the 
comptroller of the county of New York hereafter 
elected or appointed shall be allowed to retain 
five per cent on all taxes paid and accounted for 
by him under this act in full for his services in 
collecting and paying the same, in addition to his 
salary or fees now allowed by law. 

Sect. 23. Any person, or body politic or cor- 
porate, shall, upon payment of the sum of fifty 
cents, be entitled to a receipt from the county 
treasurer of any county or comptroller of the 
county of New York, or a copy of the receipt at 
his option, that may have been given by said 
treasurer or comptroller, for the payment of any 



APPENDIX. 193 

tax under this act, to be sealed with the seal of 
his office, which receipt shall designate on what 
real property, if any, of which any decedent may 
have died seized, said tax has been paid, and by 
whom paid, and whether or not it is in full of 
said tax, and said receipt may be recorded in the 
clerk's office of the county in which said property 
is situate, in a book to be kept by said clerk for 
such purpose, which shall be labelled "Collateral 
Tax." 



13 



V 



194 HIGHER GROUND. 



IV. 



Lawyers are notoriously conservative. Yet so 
pressing has become the need of doing some- 
thing to limit " abnormally large fortunes" that 
the Illinois lawyers are discussing the propriety of 
limiting by law the amount of money which can 
be inherited by any one person. At the meeting 
of the Bar Association of the State of Illinois, in 
January, 1887, the following among other pro- 
ceedings were had : — 



LIMITING THE AMOUNT OF AN IN- 
HERITANCE. 

Messrs. Harvey B. Hurd and James A. Con- 
nolly, the special committee on the advisability of 
amending the statutes of descent and wills so as 
to limit the amount any one person can inherit or 
take by will from the same decedent, submitted 
a report, the substance of which is as follows : 
The Committee in a previous report did not ad- 
vocate any plan that would carry away an estate 
from the kin of the decedent, but one that would 
break it up into smaller portions than is done 
in the great estates of the present time, and 
so counteract the growing tendency to mass the 
wealth of the country in a few hands. The 



APPENDIX. 195 

amount a child might take could be limited to 
$500,000. In the case of an estate of $1,000,000 
to which there were as heirs, in the first degree a 
child, in the second three brothers, and in the 
third ten other persons, it was recommended that 
the estate should be divided so as to give $500,- 
000 to the child, $100,000 to each of the three 
brothers, and $200,000 among the ten persons in 
the third degree of kinship in equal shares. If 
more than enough to pay these, the surplus might 
go to those in the next degree of kinship. No 
restriction was proposed upon devises for educa- 
tional or charitable purposes. Upon the ques- 
tion whether such a law would not be evaded by 
gifts inter vivos, and especially in anticipation of 
approaching death, it was sufficient to say that 
the law could be so framed as to avoid all gifts 
that were in their nature testamentary or made 
with the intent to defeat the law. It was most 
likely that the law would induce more liberal giv- 
ing while alive, both to assist dependents and for 
benevolent purposes. 

As to whether the disposition of property upon 
the death of the owner was within the control of 
the legislative power of the State, it should be 
said that there never was a time in the history of 
the law when such disposition was not regulated 
by the State. No State, as far as known, had 
seen fit to impose any constitutional restriction 
upon the exercise of this power. Both in England 



I96 HIGHER GROUND. 

and in this country the power to dispose of prop- 
erty by will was the creature of the statute. The 
statutes of wills of the different States were al- 
most as variant as the statutes of descent. There 
was no constitutional restriction upon the right of 
the legislature to make and change such laws to 
suit the wishes of the people, nor was there any 
vested right standing in the way. 

There was a most serious and growing discon- 
tent over the relations of property to our social 
and political welfare, but there was a wide differ- 
ence of opinion as to where the fault lay and how 
it could be remedied. The committee did not 
profess to be able to solve the difficulty entirely, 
but undertook to give some substantial reasons 
why the recommendations referred to would at 
least have a favorable tendency, extending with 
increasing efficiency far into the future. To pre- 
vent the accumulation of large estates in particu- 
lar families, through inheritance and devises, was 
one of the distinguishing features in the policy of 
this country and lay at the foundation of our sys- 
tem of government, exercising a salutary influence 
scarcely less powerful than the elective franchise 
itself. The committee did not wish to be under- 
stood as agreeing with the notion that it was either 
practicable or desirable to produce an equality as 
to property, but, on the contrary, indorsed Chan- 
cellor Kent's view that " the sense of property is 
graciously bestowed upon mankind for the pur- 



APPENDIX. I97 

pose of rousing them from sloth and stimulating 
them to action ; and so long as the right of acqui- 
sition is exercised in conformity to the social rela- 
tions and the moral obligations which spring from 
them it ought to be sacredly protected." The 
difficulty was that the laws, as they now stood, 
fell short in accomplishing what they were de- 
signed to do and once did well. The considera- 
tion that was uppermost was the safety of property 
itself. 

The committee did not favor in that recommen- 
dation such a change in the laws of inheritance as 
would affect the great majority of estates, but 
only those that were obnoxious to the spirit of 
our institutions, the " abnormally large fortunes," 
which absorbed and took out of circulation large 
blocks of wealth and gave to their possess- 
ors an undue prominence and influence in the 
affairs of the country. Such accumulations of 
wealth resulted in discontent that was rapidly and 
steadily growing. The church could do much by 
its teachings and ministrations, but it was for the 
State to correct the source of the unhappy condi- 
tion of things. Reform could only be accom- 
plished by appealing to the self-interest of the peo- 
ple and not by running counter to it. No man in 
his natural sympathies would be willing to put his 
earning in a common pot to be doled out to him 
from a common crib, or to be driven to his daily 
toil by a common overseer, — the practical out- 



198 HIGHER GROUND. 

come of Socialism. Contentment and safety lay 
in keeping good the promise of our free institu- 
tions, in giving to every man as nearly as might 
be an equal chance with every other man. Under 
a wise system of property-law the number of the 
unsuccessful might be kept down to a small per 
cent of the whole, — far below the danger point. 
A more general diffusion of property would not 
interfere with the carrying forward of great enter- 
prises nor damp the ardor of business if a reason- 
able limitation were fixed. 

Any one can see at a glance that what the 
Illinois lawyers wish to accomplish can be done 
much more easily by the succession tax and some 
of the French rules of inheritance, while at the 
same time by means of education the people can 
be made to go up higher. 

In the Legislature of Illinois, session of 1887, 
the following among other proceedings were had : 

House Bill — No. 233. 
35th Assembly Illinois. January, 1887. 

Introduced by Mr. Collins's special committee, Jan- 
uary 28, 1887. 

First reading January 28, 1887, ordered printed and 
referred to Committee on Judiciary. 

The Special Committee, to whom was referred the 
preparation of a bill to restrict the amount any person 



APPENDIX. I99 

or corporation may take by descent or will from the 
same decedent, respectfully report the following bill. 
W. H. Collins, Chairman. 

A Bill for an Act to restrict the Amount any Person 
or Corporation may take by Descent or Will fro?n 
the same Decedent. 

Sect. i. Be it enacted by the People of the State 
of Illinois, represented in the General Assembly, No 
person shall, by will or testament, devise or bequeath, 
either in trust or otherwise, more in value or amount, 
to the same person, than as follows, to wit : To his or 
her surviving wife or husband, not more than the sum 
or value of five hundred thousand dollars, or if the 
estate of decedent, is in whole or in part, in land, 
not more than fifteen hundred acres of land; to a 
child of the testator, or of his or her wife or husband, 
or a legally adopted child, not more than the sum of 
five hundred thousand dollars, or if the estate or dece- 
dent is in whole or in part in land, not more than fif- 
teen hundred acres of land ; to the descendants of a 
child, in case of the death of the child, not more than 
by this section might be given to the child if she or 
he were living ; to any other person or corporation, 
not more than the sum or value of one hundred thou- 
sand dollars ; and any devise or bequest shall be valid 
to such amount or value, and no more. This section 
shall not apply to devises or bequests for educational 
or benevolent purposes. 

Sect 2. No person shall be capable of taking by de- 
scent or distribution either of the real or personal estate 
of any person who shall die after the taking effect of this 



200 HIGHER GROUND. 

act, more in value and amount as follows, to wit: A 
surviving husband or wife or child, or a descendant of 
a child when he can take directly and not by represen- 
tation, not to exceed five hundred thousand dollars, or 
if estate of decedent is in whole or in part in land, not 
more than fifteen hundred acres of land. The de- 
scendants of a child taking by representation may 
take the same that the person he or she represents 
miodit have taken if he or she were living. No other 
person entitled to take by descent or distribution shall 
be capable of taking from the same decedent more 
than one hundred thousand dollars. When the estate 
is more than sufficient to give to the persons first enti- 
tled to take the full amount to which they are limited 
by this act, the balance, or so much thereof as may be 
sufficient to give to each of them the amount they may 
take under the limitations contained in this act, shall 
go to the kin of the deceased standing next in kinship 
after those first entitled to take under the laws of de- 
scent in their degree and their representatives. If 
there is more than sufficient to give each of those 
standing in that degree of kinship and entitled to take 
the amount he or she may take under this act, the bal- 
ance, or so much thereof as may be sufficient to give 
to each of those the amount he or she may take under 
the limitations of this act, shall go to those standing 
in the next succeeding degree of kinship to the de- 
ceased and their representatives. The like rule shall 
be applied to any surplus, so long as there shall be 
any, until the whole estate is divided among the kin- 
dred of the deceased, preferring those standing near- 
est to the deceased, to the extent he or she may take 
under the limitations of this act. When there is not 



APPENDIX. 20 1 

sufficient to give to each of the persons standing in a 
certain degree of kinship and entitled to share the full 
amount he or she might take, such part of the estate 
shall be divided among them and those entitled to 
take by representation in equal shares, according to 
the rules of descent heretofore existing. If any bal- 
ance remains after every person capable of taking the 
same shall have taken the amount or value he or she is 
entitled to take, the same shall escheat to the State, as 
in cases where there is no person capable of inheriting 
the estate. If in any case a person shall be entitled 
to take both by descent and by will from the same de- 
cedent, the aggregate in value or amount he or she 
may take shall not exceed the amount he or she is 
capable of taking by one of these ways. 

Sect. 3. The inventory required by law to be made 
by an executor or administrator, in addition to the mat- 
ters now required to be stated therein, shall also state 
the value of each piece or parcel of real estate of 
which the deceased died possessed of or was in any 
way entitled, and the total value of the whole estate, 
real and personal ; which statement of the total value 
of said estate shall be conclusive upon all persons 
who shall claim any interest in such estate by descent 
or under the will of the deceased, by virtue of this act, 
unless the same is changed as hereinafter provided. 
Upon a sworn petition of one or more persons inter- 
ested in the estate as heirs or distributors, showing 
that such total value is too low or too high, the court 
shall appoint three disinterested persons to revalue 
the estate, who, being first sworn to make a just and 
true valuation thereof, shall revalue the same and 
make return of their valuation, which, unless set aside 



202 HIGHER GROUND. 

for fraud or mistake, shall be conclusive as to the 
rights of all persons claiming or to claim any interest 
in said estate by descent or under the will of the de- 
ceased. In all cases where a specific article or piece 
of real or personal property is given or devised by 
will, the value thereof may be inquired into in such 
way as the Probate Court shall direct. 

Sect. 4. In the proof of heirship it shall not be ne- 
cessary to show other than the heirs who will be entitled 
to share in the estate, taking into account the limita- 
tions contained in this act. Only such heirs or dis- 
tributees as shall appear to be entitled to share in the 
estate need be notified of the final settlement by the 
executor or administrator. 

Sect. 5. Before the final settlement of the estate, or 
with a view to making such final settlement, the court 
shall find the total value of the estate, and who are 
the heirs or persons interested therein as heirs, lega- 
tees, devisees, or distributees, and the nature and 
amount of their respective interests, and may order 
the whole or any part of the real or personal estate, or 
both, to be sold, and the proceeds brought into court 
for distribution according to the rights of the parties, 
or may declare the rights and interests of the respec- 
tive parties in the respective pieces and parcels of 
real estate, and may make any and all orders that may 
be necessary to carry into effect the provisions of this 
act. 

Sect. 6. Every gift, conveyance, transfer, or dispo- 
sition of any real or personal estate made with inten- 
tion to defeat the operation of this act shall be void. 

Sect. 7. All acts or parts of acts inconsistent with 
the provisions of this act are hereby repealed. 



APPENDIX. 203 

Among the acts passed by the Legislature of 
Illinois, session of 1887, and approved by the 
governor, is one drawn by Hon. Joshua C. Knick- 
erbocker, judge of the Probate Court of Cook 
County, the only object of which is to make that 
court self-sustaining. The act establishes a grad- 
uated tax upon estates in providing for a docket 
fee graduated in proportion to the value of the 
estate. 

FEES OF CLERKS OF PROBATE COURTS. 
Approved June 6, 1887. In force July 1, 18S7. 

On application for the grant of letters testa- 
mentary, of administration, guardianship, or con- 
servatorship, it shall be the duty of the applicant 
to state in his or her petition the value of all the 
real and personal estate of such deceased person, 
infant, idiot, insane person, lunatic, distracted 
person, drunkard, or spendthrift, as the case may 
be, and on the grant of letters testamentary, 
administration, guardianship, or conservatorship, 
there shall be paid to the clerk of said probate 
court from the proper estate and charge as costs 
a docket fee as follows : — 

When the estate does not exceed $5,000 . . $5.00 
When the estate exceeds $5,000 and does not 

exceed $20,000 10.00 

When the estate exceeds $20,000 and does 

not exceed $50,000 20.00 



204 HIGHER GROUND. 

When the estate exceeds $50,000 and does 

not exceed $100,000 50.00 

When the estate exceeds $100,000 and does 

not exceed 8300,000 100.00 

When the estate exceeds $300,000 and does 

not exceed $1,000,000 250.00 

In all cases when such estate amounts to 

$1,000,000 and upwards 1,000.00 

In all cases where any deceased person shall leave 
him or her surviving a widow or children resident of 
this State, who are entitled out of said estate to a 
widow's or child's award, and the entire estate, real 
and personal, of such deceased person shall not ex- 
ceed $2,000, and in case of any minor whose estate, 
real and personal, does not exceed the sum of $1,000, 
and whose father is dead, and in all cases of any idiot, 
insane person, lunatic, or a distracted person, drunk- 
ard, or spendthrift, when such person has a wife or 
infant child dependent on such person for support, and 
the entire estate of such person shall not exceed the 
sum of $2,000, the probate judge (by order of court) 
shall remit and release to such estate all of the costs 
herein provided for. 



APPENDIX. 205 



[From The New York Times > May 22, 1887.] 
COLLEGE ENDOWMENTS. 

Not many Americans are really aware of the 
enormous sums that are annually going to swell 
the endowments of institutions for learning. A 
generation ago it is probable that there was not 
a college in the country of which the available 
capital was a million dollars. In those days, and 
in days much later, a gift of thirty thousand dol- 
lars or forty thousand dollars to a college was 
hailed as munificent, and indeed it was so. With 
the higher rate of interest at that time and with 
the extremely frugal notions that prevailed among 
successful merchants of what a professor could 
live on, such a sum sufficed to give a college a 
new professorship, of which the incumbent was 
able to support himself quite as well in a country 
college as he would have been able to do in a 
country parish, which was for the most part the 
alternative. Half a million would have built and 
" stocked " a college and supplied it with ten pro- 
fessors, even had the income derived from room- 
rent and tuition been nothing at all. 

The first provision for a new college on what 
we now regard as a liberal scale was that made 



206 HIGHER GROUND. 

by Ezra Cornell twenty years ago. A great bene- 
faction it was and remains, but in amount it has 
since been very greatly outdone. The Johns 
Hopkins is another example of a college doing 
valuable work which owes its existence to the 
generosity of an individual. The endowment of 
the new university founded by Leland Stanford 
appears to be considerably over ten millions. It 
is doubtful whether any university in the world 
has ever had an endowment at all comparable to 
this at the beginning. The English universities 
were slow aggregations from slender beginnings, 
and it would be misleading to compare them with 
the university which Senator Stanford proposes 
to start full-grown. But taking all the colleges of 
Oxford or of Cambridge together, and allowing 
for the depreciation in money, or rather confining 
the comparison to what can be done with the 
money, it is doubtful whether either university, 
when the chief colleges had all been founded, say 
at the end of the seventeenth century, represented 
an endowment equivalent to that of the new uni- 
versity. This is only the most conspicuous of 
many gifts for education that in any other age or 
country would be called princely. A citizen of 
Worcester, Mass., has lately given a million for 
the foundation of a university in that city, and has 
promised to supplement this ample endowment. 
And perhaps the strongest proof that these great 
endowments have become so common as to at- 



APPENDIX. 207 

tract no notice is the dismissal, in one line of a 
dispatch about the will of the late Washington 
De Pauw, of Indiana, of the fact that he has be- 
queathed $1,250,000 to the De Pauw University. 

There is an enormous potentiality of human 
culture in this recital. It is greatly to be hoped 
that it may not be defeated by a narrow or tem- 
porary interpretation, on the part either of the 
givers or of their Trustees, of the meaning of the 
word education. We shall offend nobody, we 
trust, if we suggest that if a member of the 
Campbellite Baptist persuasion who had pros- 
pered in life were at his death to leave a million 
dollars for the foundation of a university in which 
the doctrines of the Campbellite Baptists were to 
be faithfully taught, and from which all learning 
and science, falsely so-called, inconsistent with 
these doctrines should be excluded, educated men 
and lovers of education would deplore the waste 
of money involved in such a bequest with such a 
restriction. Yet this is what is done when any 
man saddles posterity with his own view of truth 
and learning. Either his bequest will be useless, 
or at all events less useful than it might have 
been, or it will be perverted very far from his own 
intention, to the moral injury of everybody con- 
cerned in the perversion. To found a school of 
apologetics is quite a different thing from found- 
ing a place of education. " I am bound to say," 
said Carlyle in his famous address at Edinburgh, 



208 HIGHER GROUND. 

" that it does not appear as if endowments were 
the real soul of the matter. The English, for ex- 
ample, are the richest people in the world for 
endowments in their universities, and yet it is an 
evident fact that since the time of Bentley you 
cannot name anybody among them who has gained 
a European name in scholarship or constituted a 
point of revolution in the pursuits of men in that 
way. One man that actually did constitute a re- 
volution was the son of a poor weaver in Saxony, 
who edited his Tibullus in Dresden in a poor 
comrade's garret, and who, while editing his Tib- 
ullus had to gather peasecods on the streets and 
boil them for his dinner. That was his endow- 
ment. His name was Heyne." It is safe to 
suggest that part of the superiority of German 
scholarship over English comes from the fact that 
disinterested inquiry has from their origin been 
the spirit of the German universities, and that the 
comparative ineffectiveness of the English endow- 
ments has come in part from the restrictions im- 
posed by the givers. No man who assumes that 
what passes for the truth in his own mind or in 
his own time will pass as such for all time ought 
to let that notion hamper his gifts for education. 
He will do the best that is possible by adopting 
Ezra Cornell's excellent motto : " I wish to 
found a university where any person may obtain 
instruction in any study." 



APPENDIX. 209 

[Associated Press Despatch.'] 

THE DE PAUW WILL. 

Proceedings to set it aside begun by the Dead Million- 
naire's First Child* 

New Albany, Ind., Aug. 16, 1887. 
This city is greatly excited to-night over the 
news of a suit filed here to-day to set aside the 
will of the late Washington C. De Pauw, who died 
worth $6,000,000. The attorneys who filed the 
suit are C L. and Harry E. Jewett. Their client, 
the plaintiff, is Mrs. Sarah Ellen Mcintosh, wife 
of J. A. Mcintosh, of Salem, Indiana. Mr. De 
Pauw had three wives. The plaintiff is his first 
and only child by the first wife. Two sons are 
living, the only children by the second wife, and 
the third wife and her daughter survive Mr. De 
Pauw. To Mrs. Mcintosh he willed two poor 
farms, not worth $5,000 all told, while to his 
widow and his other three surviving children he 
willed what will amount to $1,000,000 each. Mrs. 
Mcintosh married against her father's wish, but 
she thought he forgave her, as he visited her and 
was otherwise kind to her, and both she and her 
father were zealous members of the Methodist 
church. She sues to obtain one-sixth of the es- 
tate, and makes the natural heirs and all other 
legatees defendants. 

14 



2IO HIGHER GROUND. 



VI. 

\From the Chicago Tribune, July 16, 1887.] 

THE EDUCATION OF THE FUTURE. 

The memorable convention of the National 
Educational x\ssociation stands adjourned. While 
it has not taken a decided position on the ques- 
tion of manual training, which is destined to be 
the education of the future, still progress has 
been made. At the proceedings Thursday the 
President of the Department of Industrial Educa- 
tion made a strong plea for it and argued that it 
should go hand in hand with the academical sys- 
tem, and that manual work was favorable in its 
influence upon the purely intellectual. Professor 
Woodward of St. Louis, whose manual training 
school has a national reputation, said : " It has 
been found that there are methods of teaching and 
employing children in kindergarten schools, and I 
believe that boys of fourteen can also be taught 
in manual training without the book-work suffer- 
ing a loss." Numerous other instructors gave 
their testimony as to its value, among them Pro- 
fessor Caruthers of Cincinnati, who said that in 
that city "drones had become hard-working stu- 
dents." At the dinner given by the Prang Edu- 



APPENDIX. 211 

cational Company, which was attended by a large 
representation of the most prominent people iden- 
tified with art and industrial education in this 
country, there were numerous enthusiastic ex- 
pressions of opinion in favor of the new depart- 
ure. At the meeting of the Association yesterday 
morning Gen. Francis Walker, the President of 
the famous Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 
whose certificates are of more practical value to a 
boy entering the world of work than the diploma 
of any school or college, made an argument for 
manual training which carried great weight with it, 
and was listened to with unusual interest. 

The report adopted by the convention recognizes 
the value of the industrial art. The next conven- 
tion will go farther, we believe, and not only rec- 
ognize its value, but will act upon it and suggest 
the plan for adopting it as part of the free-school 
system. It is growing rapidly. The school ex- 
hibit is itself a silent but most powerful argument 
in its favor and a testimonial to its remarkable 
growth. It is filled with the results of manual 
training both in art and industry, and these ex- 
hibits dwarf all the others both in interest and in 
variety. They stand there an unanswerable argu- 
ment. As the system which educates head and 
hand together ; which arouses enthusiasm in the 
pupil i which gives an added value to his academi- 
cal training ; which develops the ideal faculty and 
tends to bring forward the artistic talent of the 



212 HIGHER GROUND. 

country ; which gives to the boy and girl some- 
thing which is of practical use to them \ which 
will send them out into the world better prepared 
to make a living ; which gives them habits of in- 
dustry, and which educates the hand and head to 
labor instead of educating the wits to avoid labor, 
— this system is bound to be the future reliance 
of our free schools. It has come to stay. As 
President Ordway said in his address : " We need 
no longer discuss whether the work shall be intro- 
duced into the public schools. It is already there 
and will stay there. What we need to discuss is 
the methods of teaching and what shall be taught." 
The Association has recognized the value of the 
principle. Another Association, we believe, will 
fix its definite status in the school system, and 
provide the methods of its operation. It is the 
education of the future. 



THE CHICAGO MANUAL TRAINING 
SCHOOL CATALOGUE, 1886-87. 

Course of Study and Practice. 

JUNIOR YEAR. 

(1.) Mathe7?tatics. — Algebra; Geometry. 
(2.) Science. — Physiology ; Physical Geography. 
(3.) Language. — English Language and Litera- 
ture ; or Latin. 



APPENDIX. 213 

(4.) Drawing. — Freehand Model and Object ; 
Projection ; Machine ; Perspective. 

(5.) Shop-work. — Carpentry, Joinery, Wood-Turn- 
ing, Pattern-Making, Proper Care and Use of Tools. 



MIDDLE YEAR. 

(1.) Mathematics. — Geometry; Plane Trigonom- 
etry. 

(2.) Science. — Physics . 

(3.) Language. — General History; English Lit- 
erature ; or Latin. 

(4.) Drawing. — Orthographic Projection and 
Shadows ; Line and Brush Shading ; Isometric Pro- 
jection and Shadows; Details of Machinery ; Machines 
from Measurement. 

(5.) Shop-work. — Moulding, Casting ; Forging, 
Welding, Tempering ; Soldering, Brazing. 

SENIOR YEAR. 

(1.) Mathematics. — Mechanics ; Book-keeping. 

(2.) Science. — Chemistry; or Descriptive Geome- 
try and Higher Algebra. 

(3.) Language, etc. — English Literature, Civil Gov- 
ernment, Political Economy; or Latin : or French. 

(4.) Drawing. — Machine from Measurement ; 
Building from Measurement; Architectural Perspec- 
tive. 

(5.) Machine Shop-work. — Chipping, Filing, Fit- 
ting, Turning, Drilling, Planing, etc. Study of Ma- 
chinery, including the Management and Care of Steam 
Engines and Boilers. 



2 14 HIGHER GROUJV£>. 

Instruction is given each year in the production, 
properties, and uses of the materials — wood, iron, 
brass, etc. — used in that year. 

Throughout the course, one hour each day is 
given to Drawing, and two hours each day to Shop- 
work. The remainder of each school-day is devoted 
to study and recitation. A diploma testifying to 
scholarship and skill is given on graduation. 

Equipme7it. 

The equipment of the mechanical department 
of the school is mainly as follows : — 

WOOD-ROOMS. 

50 Cabinet-maker's-benches ; 24 Speed-Lathes ; 
1 Circular Saw ; 1 Scroll Saw ; 1 Boring-machine ; 
1 Planer; 1 Grindstone; 1 Shoot-plane; Bench, Lathe, 
and General Tools for ninety-six boys. 

FOUNDRY. 

2 Furnaces ; Crucibles, Troughs, Flasks, Trowels, 
Rammers, Sieves, and other apparatus for sixty-six 
boys. 

FORGE-ROOM. 

24 Forges ; 23 Anvils ; 1 Emery-wheel ; 1 Shears ; 

3 Vises : 1 Blower ; 2 Exhaust Fans ; Tongs, Ham- 
mers, Fullers, Flatters, Swages, etc., for sixty-six 
boys. 



APPENDIX. 215 

MACHINE-SHOP. 

7 Engine-Lathes, 12-inch swing, 6-feet bed; 1 En- 
gine-Lathe, 16-inch swing, 8-feet bed ; 2 Speed-Lathes ; 
1 Planer, 6-feet bed ; 1 Shaper ; 1 Drill; 1 Grindstone ; 
1 Emery-wheel; 15 Benches; 15 Vises; Lathe and 
Vise Tools, such as Chucks, Boring-bars, Taps, Dies, 
Hammers, Chisels, Files, etc., sufficient for thirty-three 
boys ; also, 1 Forge, 1 Anvil, 1 Carpenter's-bench, 
with tools. 

Power is supplied by a Corliss engine of 52 horse 
power and by two steel boilers. 

The Work of the School 

The special feature of the school, in which it 
differs from the ordinary high school, is its Man- 
ual Training. Notwithstanding the prominence 
given to this part of its course, experience shows 
that its mathematical and scientific work need not 
be inferior to that of the best high schools. 

Education, not manufacture, is the idea under- 
lying the manual training. Consequently, the 
material products of the shops consist chiefly of 
exercises designed to develop skill in the use of 
tools. The educational value of construction is 
also recognized, and the course embraces a num- 
ber of finished articles. 

Some idea of the pupils' work in the drawing 
and mechanical departments may be obtained from 
the following partial list of the annual exhibit of 
June 23, 1886. 



2l6 HIGHER GROUND. 



JUNIOR CLASS. 

In Drawing : Freehand and mechanical drawings 
of models and tools ; problems in Plane Geometry ; 
4,134 drawings. 

In Wood-room : Mortises, tenons, dovetails, panels, 
picture-frames, foundry-flasks ; umbrella-stands ; cases 
of drawers ; tables ; cylinder office desk; roof-trusses ; 
test-tube racks ; 12 cabinet-maker's-benches ; gavels; 
vases; patterns of bells, bell-stands, oilers, hexagonal 
nuts, globe-valves, pipe-elbows, returns ; offsets ; core- 
boxes for the four last named, etc. 

MIDDLE CLASS. 

In Drawing: Orthographic projection, and line 
shading, orthographic shadows, machines from meas- 
urement; 1,700 drawings. 

In Foundry : Moulding and casting of nuts, glands, 
valves, sheave-pulleys, spur and bevel gears, bells, oil- 
cups, drawer-pulls, letter-clips, brackets, etc. 

In Forge-room : Exercises in drawing, upsetting, 
bending; open eyes, gate-hooks, hasps, staples, nails, 
bolts ; square-headed lag-screw blanks ; hexagon- 
headed bolt blanks ; blacksmith's-tongs ; rings ; chains ; 
centre-punches, etc., all of iron. In steel, centre- 
punches ; chisels ; screw-drivers ; diamond-pointed 
and side lathe-tools ; riveting, claw, and ball-pene 
hammers ; brass-turning tools ; springs ; fullers ; drills, 
etc. 

In Wood-rooi7i : One complete set of patterns for a 
6X9 steam-engine, designed by Assistant-Engineer 
Bennett. 



APPENDIX. 217 



SENIOR CLASS. 

In Drawing: Shaded drawings of globe, safety, 
and hose valves ; details of steam-engine ; engine-lathe ; 
drill-press ; planer; shaper; stationary and locomotive 
engines ; floor-plans, overhead work, elevations and 
perspectives of school-building, etc., — all from meas- 
urement ; 120 drawings. 

In Machine-Shop : Exercises in chipping and filing; 
boring-bar ; boring-carriage ; clamps and posts for 
planer; three six-horse-power slide-valve steam-engines 
made from the castings, to drawings made by the pupils 
from a finished engine of the same pattern ; bolts and 
nuts for engines ; emery-grinder ; belt-tightener ; taps 
and dies; milling-arbor; milling-cutters; face-plates, 
etc. 

Among the " projects " of the Senior Class, 
made from their own drawings, and generally 
from their own designs, were the following: Four 
steam-engines (in addition to the three named 
above) ; four dynamos ; one die-stock, with six 
taps and six dies ; one 40-lb. brass yacht-cannon 
and carriage ; one set geologist's-hammers and 
chisels ; one induction-coil ; one link-motion ; one 
speed-lathe. Two of these steam-engines, one 
3X6, the other 4 X 6, were from the pupils' own 
designs, drawings, and patterns. 



2l8 HIGHER GROUND. 

Graduates, 1886. 

Moritz William Boehm, with Crane Brothers Ele- 
vator Company, Teacher of Drawing, Evening High 
School. 

Stuart Dunlevy Boynton. 

Gary Nathan Calkins, Massachusetts Institute of 
Technology. 

Allan Montgomery Clement, with Clement, Bane, & 
Company, Manufacturers. 

Charles Locke Etheridge, Sibley College, Cornell 
University. 

William Henry Fahrney, Chicago College of Phar- 
macy. 

Samuel Douglas Flood, Massachusetts Institute of 
Technology. 

Arthur Dewey Hall, with St. Nicholas Toy Manu- 
facturing Company. 

Philip Harvey. 

Charles Williams Hawkes, with Crane Brothers 
Elevator Company. 

Charles Gilbert Hawley, Sibley College, Cornell 
University. 

John Porter Heywood, Massachusetts Institute of 
Technology. 

Harley Seymour Hibbard, with W. L. B. Jenney, 
Architect. 

Samuel Edward Hitt, Sibley College, Cornell 
University. 

Elbridge Byron Keith, Beloit College. 

Henry William Klare, Reedy Elevator Works. 

Robert Allan Lackey, with William Sooy Smith & 
Company, Civil Engineers. 



APPENDIX. 219 

Joseph Dixon Lewis, with N. K. Fairbank & Com- 
pany, Manufacturers. 

James Stuart McDonald, Jr., Assistant Superinten- 
dent McDonald-Lawson Manufacturing Company. 

Charles Messer. 

William Otis Moody. 

Ovington Ross, with George P. Ross, Manufacturer. 

Albert Scheible, School of Mechanical Engineering, 
Purdue University. 

Herman SchifHin, with Fraser & Chalmers, Manu- 
facturers. 

Emil Henry Seemann, with Frederick Seemann, 
Manufacturer. 

Henry Heileman Wait, Hyde Park High School. 

Oliver Johnson Westcott, with A. Gottlieb & Com- 
pany, Civil Engineers. 



THE ST. LOUIS MANUAL TRAINING 
SCHOOL CATALOGUE, 1886-87. 

Co7iditions of A dmission . 

Candidates for admission to the First- Year class 
must be at least fourteen years of age, and each 
must present a certificate of good moral character 
signed by a former teacher. 

They must also pass a good examination on the 
following subjects : — 

1. Arithmetic, including the fundamental rules; 
common and decimal fractions ; the tables of weights, 
measures, and their use ; percentage ; and analysis of 



220 HIGHER GROUND. 

miscellaneous problems. Candidates will be examined 
orally in mental arithmetic, including fractions, mixed 
numbers, and the higher multiplication-table. 

2. Common School Geography, including map- 
drawing from memory. 

3. Spelling and Penmanship. 

4. The writing of good descriptive and narrative Eng- 
lish, with the correct use of capitals and punctuation. 

Candidates for the Second-Year class must be 
at least fifteen years of age. All that is specified 
above will be required of them, and, in addition, 
the book studies of the First- Year class. 

Similar requirements apply to those desiring to 
enter the Third-Year class. 

But one new class per year is admitted, namely, 
in September. 

Vacancies may be filled at any time, provided 
the applicants are prepared to enter existing 
classes. 

The Course of Instruction 

covers three years, and embraces five parallel lines, 
— three purely intellectual, and two both intel- 
lectual and manual, — as follows : — 

First — A course of pure Mathematics, including 
Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, and Plane Trigo- 
nometry. 

Second — A course in Science and Applied 
Mathematics, including Physical Geography, Botany, 
Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, Mensuration, and 
Book-keeping. 



APPENDIX, 221 

Third — A course in Language and Literature, in- 
cluding English Grammar, Spelling, Composition, 
Literature, History, and the elements of Political 
Science and Economy. Latin and French are intro- 
duced as electives with English or Science. 

Fourth — A course in Penmanship, Free-Hand and 
Mechanical Drawing. 

Fifth — A course of Tool instruction, including Car- 
pentry, Wood-turning, Moulding, Brazing, Soldering, 
Forging, and Bench and Machine Work in Metals. 

The course in Drawing embraces three general 
divisions : — 

i. Free-Hand Drawing, designed to educate the 
sense of form and proportion ; to teach the eye to 
observe accurately, and to train the hand to rapidly 
delineate the forms either of existing objects or of 
ideals in the mind. 

2. Mechanical Drawing, including the use of in- 
struments ; geometric constructions ; the arrangement 
of projections, elevations, plans, and sections ; also the 
various methods of representing shades and shadows 
with pen and brush. 

3. Technical Drawing or Draughting, illustrating 
conventional colors and signs, systems of architectu- 
ral or shop drawings ; and at the same time familiariz- 
ing the pupil with the proportions and details of various 
classes of machines and structures. 

Students have no option or election as to partiadar 
studies, except as regards Latin and French; each 
must conform to the course as laid down, and take 
every branch in its order. 



222 HIGHER GROUND. 

The arrangement of studies and shop-work by 
years is substantially as follows: — 

FIRST YEAR. 

Arithmetic, completed; Algebra, to equations. 

English Language, its Structure and use ; Study 
of Selected Pieces ; History of the United States. 

Latin Grammar and Reader may be taken in place 
of English. 

Introduction to Science; Physical Geography ; Bot- 
any. 

Drawing, Mechanical and Free-hand ; Penmanship. 

Carpentry and Joinery j Wood-Carvi?ig ; Wood- 
Turning. 

SECOND YEAR. 

Algebra, through Quadratics ; Geojnetry begun. 

Natural Philosophy ; Experimental Work i?i the 
Physical Laboratory ; x Principles of Mechanics. 

English Co7nposition and Literature j Rhetoric j 
English History. 

Latin [Caesar] may be taken in place of English 
and History. 

Drawing, Line-shading, and Tinting Machines ; 
Development of Surfaces ; Free-Hand Detail Draw- 
ing; Isometric Projections. 

Shop-Work — Forging, Drawing, Upsetting, Bend- 
ing, Punching, Welding, Tempering; Pattern-making, 
Moulding, Casting, Soldering, and Brazing. 

1 In connection with the physical laboratory is a special 
work-shop containing work-benches, hand tools, two lathes, 
and a dynamo driven by a small upright steam-engine built 
by the class of 1886. 



APPENDIX, 223 



THIRD YEAR. 

Geometry continued; Plane Trigonometry j Men- 
suration. 

English Composition and Literature ; History; 
Ethics, and Political Economy. 

French may be taken in place of English and His- 
tory, or in place of the Science study. 

Physiology j Elements of Chemistry. Students 
who have taken Latin, and who intend to enter the 
Polytechnic School after completing the course in this 
school, will take History in the place of Physiology 
and Chemistry. 

Bo ok- Keep ing. 

Drawing, Brush-shading, Machine, and Architectu- 
ral Drawing. 

Work in the Machine-Shop, Bench-work and 
Fitting, Turning, Drilling, Planing, Screw-cutting, etc. 
Stzcdy of the Steam-Engine. 

Execution of Project. 



The Daily Programme. 

The school time of the pupils is about equally 
divided between mental and manual exercises. 
The daily session begins at 9 a. m., and closes at 
3.30 p. m., thirty minutes being allowed for lunch. 
Each pupil has daily three recitations, one hour of 
drawing or penmanship, and two hours of shop 
practice. The order in which these exercises 
follow each other is shown in the accompanying 
table. 



224 



HIGHER GROUND. 



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APPENDIX. 225 

Diploma and Certificate. 

Students who complete the course with credit 
in all its details will receive the diploma of the 
school. 

Before receiving a diploma of the school, each 
student must execute, either alone or in connec- 
tion with certain specified students, a project sat- 
isfactory to the managers of the school. The 
project consists in the actual construction of a 
machine. The finished machine must be accom- 
panied by a full set of the working-drawings ac- 
cording to which the machine is made. If it is 
not feasible to construct the patterns for castings 
of such machine, proper directions for their con- 
struction must accompany the drawings. 

School Building and Accommodations. 

THE TWO CARPENTER AND TURNING SHOPS. 

Each wood-working shop has uniform accom- 
modations for a class of twenty-four pupils. 

Each pupil has one of the uniform sets of hand 
edge-tools for his exclusive use, kept in a locked 
drawer. For the care and safety of these tools 
he is held responsible. 

The school has forty-eight speed-lathes for 
wood-turning, forty-eight benches, vises, and com- 
mon (non-cutting) tools, and 144 individual sets 
of edge-tools in as many drawers. 
15 



226 HIGHER GROUND. 

THE MOULDING, BRAZING, AND SOLDERING ROOM. 

This shop contains twenty-four benches and 
sets of tools, flasks, etc., for moulding. A small 
gas-furnace for melting alloys, and ladles for cast- 
ing, furnish sufficient practice to test the accuracy 
of patterns and moulds. Separate benches and 
furnaces are provided for brazing and soldering. 

THE FORGING-SHOP. 

The first floor of the building is devoted to 
metal work, and comprises the machine and black- 
smith shops. The blacksmith-shop is forty feet 
square, and has its complete equipment of twenty- 
two forges, anvils, tubs, and sets of ordinary hand 
tools. The blast is supplied by a power blower, 
and a large exhaust fan 1 keeps the shop reason- 
ably free from smoke and gas. 

THE MACHINE-SHOP 

is 40 x 50 feet. It possesses an equipment of 
sixteen engine-lathes, as follows : eight 14-inch 
Putnam lathes from Fitchburg, Massachusetts ; 
three 14-inch Star lathes from Providence, Rhode 
Island ; and five 15-inch Powell lathes from 
Worcester, Massachusetts. Also four speed- 
lathes, a post-drill, a planer 21-inch by 21-inch 

1 This fan, a " Sturtevant " with a delivery of 18" by 23", 
was presented to the school by Mr. Sturtevant, the inventor. 



APPENDIX. 227 

by 5 feet, a small hand planer, a 25-inch goose- 
neck drill, a shaper of 15 inches stroke, 2 grind- 
stones, a double emery -grinder and a gas-forge x 
and anvil. Ten vises and benches afford oppor- 
tunity for bench- work. The shop is furnished for 
a class of twenty students at once. 

In the summer of 1886 important changes were 
made in the shop. The large engine was taken 
out and on the floor space thus gained four addi- 
tional Putnam lathes were placed. The entire 
shop was double-floored and otherwise improved. 

The present engine-room is below this shop. 
The engine is capable of about fifty horse-power. 
It has a 14-inch cylinder and 12-inch stroke, and 
runs at the rate of 170 revolutions per minute. 
It was built specially for the school by Messrs. 
Smith, Beggs, & Rankin, of St. Louis. The steam- 
generating apparatus of the University consists 
of a battery of three large steel boilers, set and 
furnished in the most approved manner. These 
boilers furnish heat for the entire group of Uni- 
versity buildings, as well as steam for the engine 
in the shop. The equipment of steam power 
furnishes to pupils of the Third- Year class the 
means of becoming familiar with machinery on a 
practical scale. 

1 The gas-forge is furnished with an air jet by the West- 
inghouse brake, which was presented to the school by the 
Westinghouse Brake Company. The air-pump of this ma- 
chine is also used to exhaust the receiver in the physical 
laboratory. 



228 HIGHER GROUND. 



Details of Shop Instruction. 

The shop instruction is given similarly to la- 
boratory lectures. The instructor at the bench, 
machine, or anvil, fully explains the principles to 
be used or illustrated, executes in the presence 
of the whole class the day's lesson, giving all 
needed information, at times using the blackboard. 
When it is possible the pupils make working- 
drawings of the piece or model to be executed, 
and questions are asked and answered, that all 
obscurities may be removed. The class then pro- 
ceeds to the execution of the task, leaving the in- 
structor to give additional help to such as need it. 
At a specified time the lesson ceases and the work 
is brought in, commented on, and marked. It is 
not necessary that all the work assigned should 
be finished ; the essential thing is that it should 
be well begun and carried on with reasonable 
speed and accuracy. 

All the shop-work is disciplinary ; special trades 
are not taught, nor are the articles manufactured for 
sale ; as a rule the products of the shop have no 
value except as exercises, illustrating typical forms 
and methods. 

The object of the school is education, and none 
of the class exercises, whether in the shop, the 
drawing or the recitation room, can be supposed 
to have any pecuniary value. The most instructive 



APPENDIX. 229 

tasks have no outcome except in the intelligence 
and skill of the student himself. 

The scope of a single trade is too narrow for 
educational purposes. Manual education should 
be as broad and liberal as intellectual. A shop 
which manufactures for the market, and expects a 
revenue from the sale of its products, is necessa- 
rily confined to salable work; and a systematic and 
progressive series of lessons is impossible, except 
at great cost. If the object of the shop is educa- 
tion, a student should be allowed to discontinue 
any task or process the moment he has learned to 
do it well. If the shop were intended to make 
money, the students would be kept at work on 
what they could do best, at the expense of breadth 
and versatility. In a factory intellectual life and 
activity is not aimed at ; its sole object is the pro- 
duction of articles for the market. In a manual 
training school everything is for the benefit of the 
boy ; he is the most important thing in the shop ; 
he is the only article to be pict icpon the market. 

Even in manual education the chief object is 
mental development and culture. Manual dex- 
terity is but the evidence of a certain kind of 
mental power; and this mental power, coupled 
with a familiarity with the tools the hand uses, is 
doubtless the only basis of that sound practical 
judgment and ready mastery of material forces 
and problems which always characterizes one well 
fitted for the duties of active, industrial life. 



230 HIGHER GROUND. 

Hence, the primary object is the acquirement of 
that mental clearness and intellectual acumen 
which is the natural outgrowth of logical processes 
fully comprehended and intelligently executed. 
This thoughtful activity results in skill in the use 
of tools and materials. The production of specific 
articles is a secondary and far inferior considera- 
tion. Moreover the training must be general, that 
its possible economic application may have the 
widest range. We therefore abstract all the me- 
chanical processes and manual arts and typical 
tools of the trades and occupations of men, ar- 
range a systematic course of instruction in the 
same, and then incorporate it in our system of edu- 
cation. Thus, without teaching any one trade, 
we teach the essential mechanical principles of 
all. 

Accordingly, the shop-training is gained by 
regular and carefully graded lessons designed to 
cover as much ground as possible, and to teach 
thoroughly the uses of ordinary tools. This does 
not imply the attainment of sufficient skill to pro- 
duce either the fine work or exhibit the rapidity 
of a skilled mechanic. 

How the Use of Tools is Taught 

The tools of a shop are not given out all at 
once; they are issued as they are needed, and as 
a rule, to all the members of the class alike. 



APPENDIX. 231 

I. CARPENTRY. 

In carpenter work the tools used are : the cross- 
cut, tenon, and rip saws ; steel square, try square, 
bevel and gauge, hammer, mallet, rule, and divid- 
ers, oil stones and slips. And among edge tools : 
the jack and smoothing planes, chisels and gouges. 
Braces and bits, jointer planes, compass saws, 
hatchets and other tools are kept in the shop tool- 
closet to be used as needed. 

The saw and the plane with the square, chisel, 
and gouge are the foundation tools, and to drill 
the pupils in their use numerous lessons are given, 
varied only enough to avoid monotony. The pupil 
being able to plane a piece fairly well, and to keep 
to the line in sawing, the first and most important 
step is to learn to " lay out " his piece properly. 
This requires great care and attention to details, 
and precision. Self-taught workmen are always 
lacking here. The next step is to teach the use 
of the chisel in producing simple joints of various 
kinds. The particular shapes are given with the 
intent to familiarize the pupil with the customary 
styles and methods of construction. 

Previous to the execution of a lesson in wood, 
each pupil is required to make a working-drawing 
of the same in his book, inserting all necessary 
dimensions in figures. 

The different sizes of the same tool, a chisel for 
instance, require different care and methods of 



232 HIGHER GROUND. 

handling; and the means of overcoming irreg- 
ularities and defects in material form another 
chapter in the instruction to be given. 

With the introduction of each tool the pupils 
are taught how to keep the same in order. They 
are taught that sharp tools are absolutely neces- 
sary to good work. 

II. WOOD-TURNING. 

Five or six tools only are used, and from pre- 
vious experience the pupils know how to keep 
them in order. At first a large gouge only is used, 
and the pupils are taught and drilled in its use in 
roughing-out and producing cylinders and cones ; 
then concave and double-curve surfaces ; then in 
work comprising all these, — all in wood-turning 
with the grain. A wide chisel follows, and its use 
in conjunction with the gouge is taught. After 
this, a smaller gouge, chisel, and parting-tool, and 
a round point are given, and a variety of shapes 
are executed. Next comes turning across the 
grain ; then bored and hollow work, chucking, 
and the various ways of manipulating wood on 
face-plates, mandrels, etc. Finally, turning of 
fancy woods, polishing, jointing, and construction 
work 

III. FORGING. 

Work in the blacksmith-shop is in one essential 
feature different from any other kind. Wood or 
cold iron will wait any desired length of time 



APPENDIX. 233 

while the pupil considers how he shall work, but 
here comes in temperature subject to continual 
change. The injunction is imperative to " strike 
while the iron is hot," and hence quick work is 
demanded, — a hard thing for new hands. To 
obviate this difficulty bars of lead are used, with 
which the lesson is first executed, while all the 
particulars of form and the methods of holding 
and striking are studied. The lead acts under 
the hammer very nearly like hot iron, and permits 
every operation on the anvil except welding. 

The various operations of drawing, bending, 
upsetting, punching, welding, tempering, etc., are 
learned in connection with the fabrication of 
hooks, stirrups, chains, swivels, tongs, hammers, 
and machine-tools. 

The final exercises in the shop consist in the 
construction of a set of tools which the pupil will 
himself use in the machine-shop during his third 
year. 

One of the most difficult lessons in the art of 
the smith is that of managing the fire. The 
various kinds of heat are explained and illus- 
trated, the habits of economy of both iron and 
heat are inculcated. The exercises in forging 
occupy the shop time for thirty weeks. 

IV. PATTERN MAKING AND MOULDING. 

The course in pattern making and moulding 
was greatly extended during the past year. These 



234 HIGHER GROUND. 

subjects, with some exercises in soldering, now 
occupy ten weeks (that is, one hundred hours). 

In connection with the making of patterns, their 
use is shown by brief exercises in moulding. Cast- 
ings are made of lead or type-metal and plaster. 
Though very little moulding or casting is done 
by the students, enough practice is given to il- 
lustrate the principles and explain the use of 
technical terms. 

Last year a complete set of patterns (that is, a 
large number of sets of patterns) of a three or 
four horse-power engine was made, moulded, and 
cast in plaster. In this way several barrels of 
plaster were used and hundreds of models, more 
or less perfect, were produced. In some instances 
ornamental or art forms were moulded and cast. 

V. MACHINE-SHOP WORK. 

In the machine shop it is obviously out of the 
question to furnish a class of twenty pupils with 
a lathe, planer, drill, etc., each. The cost of such 
tools and the size of such a shop puts the matter 
beyond discussion. 

Hence it is not possible to have all the pupils 
in a class of twenty performing the same exercise 
at once, as is the case in the shops just described. 
Nevertheless, this fact does not interfere with the 
use of systematic lessons and uniform practice. 
By exercises suited to the uses of each machine, 
and to bench-work, and by regular rotation of the 



APPENDIX. 235 

class, each pupil does the same work. The verbal 
instruction and illustration at the machine for any 
lesson is given to the whole class at once, while a 
system of printed cards always within the pupil's 
reach, serves to refresh his memory without taxing 
the instructor when several days intervene be- 
tween the instruction to the class and the pupil's 
performance. Thus it is practicable to secure in 
a large degree the benefits of the class system. 
The course includes work at the — 

(a.) Bench : Use of hammer and chisel, file and 
scraper, hand dies, taps and reamers. 

(J?.) Hand-Lathe : Use of hand tools, drilling, 
counter-sinking, filing, and polishing. 

(c) Engine- Lathe : Turning, boring with bar and 
lathe-tool, screw-cutting, external and internal chuck- 
ing and machine-fitting. 

(d.) Drill Press : Drilling and boring. 

(e.) Planer and Shaper : Producing flat or curved 
surfaces and fittings. 

(/".) Care of tool-room, the preparation of shop 
drawings ; study of the engine and boilers. 

(<£"•) Construction of a machine. 

THE SMALL AMOUNT OF SHOP PRACTICE. 

The time spent in shop-work has never ex- 
ceeded two hours per day, unless the boys have 
voluntarily remained after hours, that is, after 
3.30 o'clock, for additional practice. Moreover, 
from these two hours should be subtracted fully 
fifteen minutes for washing, dressing, etc. A 



236 HIGHER GROUND. 

week, therefore, represents less than nine hours 
of actual work in a shop. Hence, in placing a 
value upon the time spent it should be remem- 
bered that a " day's work " is all the boys have 
per week. For carpentry and wood-turning they 
have three hundred and eighty hours, or thirty- 
eight days in all ; in forging, moulding, brazing, 
and soldering, during the second year, three hun- 
dred and eighty-hours ; in iron-fitting, turning, 
finishing, etc., three hundred and eighty hours. 
They are thus boys of very limited practice, and 
while they ought to have intelligent ideas of tools 
and their uses, of the laws of mechanism, of the 
properties of wood, iron, steel, and brass, and 
understand the meaning and force of mechanical 
words and technical terms, 'one ought not to 
expect finished work from their hands. 

Literary and Scientific Culture. 

It has not been thought necessary to detail the 
work done on the familiar subjects of mathe- 
matics, science, and literature. The simultaneous 
development and discipline of intellectual and 
physical faculties is the main object of the course. 
The aim is to do thorough work ; to lay out a 
fair course of study and to cover it well. There 
is no laxity in book-work in consequence of the 
introduction of manual features in the daily pro- 
gramme. 



APPENDIX. 237 



The General Theory of the School. 

The Manual Training School is not an asylum 
for dull or lazy boys. It clearly recognizes the 
pre-eminent value of and necessity for intellectual 
development and discipline. In presenting some 
novel features in its course of instruction, the 
managers do not assume that in other schools 
there is too much intellectual and moral training, 
but that there is too little manual training for or- 
dinary American boys. This school exacts close 
and thoughtful study with tools as well as with 
books. It proposes by lengthening the usual 
school-day a full hour, and by abridging some- 
what the number of daily recitations, to find time 
for drawing and tool work, and thus to secure a 
more liberal intellectual and physical develop- 
ment, — a more symmetrical education. 

" Manual training is essential to the right and 
full development of the human mind." Certain 
intellectual faculties, such as observation and 
judgment in inductive reasoning, cannot be prop- 
erly trained except through the instrumentality 
of the hand. The proverbial caution of the prac- 
tical manipulator, and his distrust of mere theory 
(which means reasoning based on assumed, not 
real facts), show r s how unsafe is reasoning not 
founded on the closest observation and intimate 
knowledge of the facts of nature. Manual train- 



238 HIGHER GROUND. 

ing cultivates the judgment rather than the 
memory. 

Every one seems to admit that it is a good 
thing for a boy, in addition to his literature, sci- 
ence, and mathematics, to understand the theory 
and practical use of ordinary tools ; to be able to 
make and read drawings as used in the arts ; and 
to have some cultivation in the graces of form and 
ornament. The question is, Where shall he get 
these things ? Some say in private shops and 
offices ; some say in private schools ; others say 
at home during vacation. Some assume that it 
is clear even without experiment that such things 
are taught more quickly and better at home than 
at school. Now, as a matter of fact, most boys 
don't learn these things anywhere. Those who 
learn the theory and use of tools in private (com- 
mercial) shops and offices do so at great expense 
of what is more valuable than money ; the train- 
ing generally costs an unreasonable waste of time, 
a sacrifice of the literary and scientific parts of 
education, often a sacrifice of wholesome associ- 
ations ; and generally one gets only a narrow 
manual training after all. An experience of many 
years enables the Director to say that the general 
use of tools and mechanical processes, together 
with ordinary draughting (drawing and tool-work 
should go hand in hand), can be taught more 
quickly, far better, and at much less cost at a 
properly equipped school than at home. No one 



APPENDIX. 239 

who has seen what is accomplished in this direc- 
tion in a good school can for a moment be in 
doubt about the superiority of the school method. 

THE HABIT OF THINKING. 

" I well know how firmly fixed is the old curric- 
ulum of study in the secondary schools, by how 
many traditions it is supported, and how unfa- 
miliar and strange the manual elements appear to 
teachers. A visit to our school generally removes 
prejudice and puts the discipline in a new light. 
Unfavorable criticism usually is from those who 
have never seen a manual training school, and as 
would be expected some of the things said about 
us are marked by a great lack of appreciation of 
our methods and results. 

" For instance, an Illinois professor said a few 
years ago that hammering wood was such a differ- 
ent matter from hammering iron that not only 
was skill in one branch of no value in the other, 
but that it was a positive hinderance. At once 
the argument was caught up by the opponents 
of manual training, and we were entertained by 
learned discussions of the various arts of ham- 
mering, by those who really knew nothing about 
them. It is as though one should insist that a 
knowledge of French is a hinderance to the learn- 
ing of Spanish, or a knowledge of Latin an 
obstacle to the mastery of Greek. It has been 
asserted by critics that there can be no such 



24O HIGHER GROUND. 

thing as a general training in the use of tools, and 
they point to the cramped muscles and unintelli- 
gent automatonism of a man who for years has 
headed pins or stamped small pieces of tin, as ex- 
hibiting the baneful effects of manual training ! 
Is it possible that such people know what we 
mean by manual training ? 

" Can they be aware that, in no American 
manual training school (and there are no such 
schools in France, or Germany, or Russia) is the 
number of hours devoted to the entire series of 
wood-working tools over four hundred ? That 
the stage of mechanical habit is never reached ? 
That the only habit actually acquired is that of 
thinking ? That no blow is struck, no line drawn, 
no motion regulated, from muscular habit ? That 
the quality of every act springs from the conscious 
will accompanied by a definite act of judgment ? 
Can such a limited training produce a high de- 
gree of manual skill ? Of course not. We have 
distinctly stated that our pupils do not become 
skilled mechanics, nor do we teach them the full 
details of a single trade. The tools whose theory, 
care, and use we teach are representative, and the 
processes which we teach, just far enough to make 
every step clear and experimentally understood, 
equally underlie a score of trades. I say experi- 
mentally understood, by which I mean that it is 
not enough to know that a certain outline is to be 
produced, or a certain adaptation is to be secured, 



APPENDIX. 24I 

but one must know just the forces to be directed, 
the motions needed, and in their order, and all as 
the result of the closest attention and steady- 
intellectual activity. 

"What, then, is this so-called manual training 
but continuous mental discipline ? I have already 
spoken of the mental effect of science study. I 
claim equally beneficial effects for the thoughtful 
study of the theory and use of typical tools. " 

THE DEVELOPMENT OF NATURAL APTITUDES. 

It occasionally happens that students who have 
special aptitudes in certain directions find great 
difficulty in mastering subjects in other directions. 
In such cases it is often the best course to yield 
to natural tastes, and to assist the student in find- 
ing his proper sphere of work and study. A 
decided aptitude for handicraft is sometimes 
coupled with a strong aversion to and unfitness 
for abstract and theoretical investigations. There 
can be no doubt that, in such cases, more time 
should be spent in the shop, and less in the lec- 
ture and recitation room. On the other hand, 
great facility in the acquisition and use of lan- 
guage is often accompanied by a great lack of 
either mechanical interest or power. When such 
a basis is discovered, the lad should unquestion- 
ably be sent to his grammar and dictionary, rather 
than to the laboratory or draughting-room. It is 
confidently believed that the developments of this 
16 



242 HIGHER GROUND. 

school will prevent those serious errors in the 
choice of a vocation which often prove so fatal to 
the fondest hopes. 

DIGNITY OF INTELLIGENCE IN LABOR. 

One great object of the school is to foster a 
higher appreciation of the value and dignity of 
intelligent labor, and the worth and respectability 
of laboring-men. A boy who sees nothing in 
manual labor but mere brute force, despises both 
the labor and the laborer. With the acquisition 
of skill in himself, comes the ability and willing- 
ness to recognize skill in his fellows. When once 
he appreciates skill in handicraft, he regards the 
skilful workman with sympathy and respect. 

Again, it is highly desirable that a larger pro- 
portion of intelligent and well-educated youth 
should devote their energies to manual pursuits 
or to the development of mechanical industries, 
both for their own sakes and for the sake of the 
occupations and for society. 

Undoubtedly the common belief is that it re- 
quires no great amount of brains or intelligence 
to be a mechanic ; and those who go through or- 
dinary higher schools are not expected by their 
teachers to be mechanics. Every bright farmer's 
boy, every gifted son of a mechanic, if he but stay 
in school, is sure to be stolen away from the occu- 
pation of his father and led into the ranks of the 
" learned professions." 



APPENDIX. 243 

This loss of the best minds, and the lack of the 
results of a generous education does much to give 
color to popular prejudice, and to keep down me- 
chanic arts in the estimation of all. This result 
is most unfortunate for society. It creates dis- 
tinctions which ought not to exist, and gives rise 
to false estimates of the comparative value of the 
various kinds of intellectual culture. " The suc- 
cessful conduct of any business demands and de- 
velops a special scholarship, which is not less 
valuable as a means of discipline because it is so 
useful as a source of wealth. The business man 
may be narrow, but so may the scholar; and in 
either case, the narrowness results not so much 
from the necessities of the vocation as from the 
character of the man." * 

Hitherto, men who have cultivated their minds 
have neglected their hands ; and those who have 
labored with their hands have found no oppor- 
tunity to cultivate their brains. The crying de- 
mand to-day is for intellectual combined with 
natural training. It is this want that this school 
aims to supply. Its motto is, " The cultured mind, 
the skilful hand." 

THE GENERAL VALUE OF MANUAL TRAINING. 

It is not assumed that every boy who enters 
this school is to be a mechanic. Some will find 
that they have no taste for manual arts, and will 
1 Prof. S. Waterhouse. 



244 HIGHER GROUND. 

turn into other paths, — law, medicine, or litera- 
ture. Some who develop both natural skill and 
strong intellectual powers will push on through 
the Polytechnic School into the realms of profes- 
sional life as engineers and scientists. Others 
will find their greatest usefulness as well as high- 
est happiness in some branch of mechanical work, 
into which they will readily step when they leave 
school. All will gain intellectually and morally 
by their experience in contact with things. The 
grand result will be an increasing interest in 
manufacturing pursuits, more intelligent mechan- 
ics, more successful manufacturers, better lawyers, 
more skilful physicians, and more useful citizens. 

THE RESULTS OF EXPERIENCE. 

The school is now in its seventh year. From 
the start it has been well patronized, and vacant 
seats have been few. The enrolment shows a 
steady increase. 

The zeal and enthusiasm of the students have 
been developed to a most gratifying extent, ex- 
tending into all the departments of work. The 
variety afforded by the daily programme has had 
the moral and intellectual effect expected, and an 
unusual degree of sober earnestness has been 
shown. The wholesome moral effect of a course 
of training which interests and stimulates the ardor 
of the student is most marked. Parents observe 
the beneficial influence of occupation. The sug- 



APPENDIX. 245 

gestions of the day fill the mind with healthy 
thoughts and appetites during the leisure hours. 
Success in drawing or shop- work has often had 
the effect of arousing the ambition in mathematics 
and history, and vice versa. Gradually the stu- 
dents acquire two most valuable habits which are 
certain to influence their whole lives ; namely, 
precision and method. 

The habit of working from drawings and to 
nice measurements has given the students a con- 
fidence in themselves altogether new. This is 
shown in the readiness with which they undertake 
the execution of small commissions in behalf of 
the school, and the handiness which they display 
at home. From the testimony of parents, the 
physical, intellectual, and moral effect of the 
school is exceedingly satisfactory. 

THE RECORD OF THE GRADUATES. 

Four classes have graduated from the school. 
Much interest has been expressed in their records 
as affording some clew to the influence of their 
training in the school. It has therefore been 
thought best to give a full list of the names and 
present occupations of the first three classes as 
fully as known. At the same time it should be 
borne in mind that the full influence of the school 
is to be found only by following the careers of all 
who have been for a longer or a shorter time 
under its influence. Only about one half of those 



246 HIGHER GROUND. 

who attend the school remain to graduate, and 
the influence of the training has been scarcely 
less marked upon those who have been in the 
school two years than upon the graduates. More- 
over, all the graduates are still too young to afford 
material for very definite conclusions. 

These first two classes had no opportunity 
while in school to study Latin ; consequently 
when they have sought to enter Polytechnic 
schools or colleges requiring Latin before ad- 
mission they have been somewhat embarrassed 
to obtain the necessary instruction in Latin. All 
the present classes have had opportunity to study 
Latin in the school. 



Class 0/1883. 

Henry H. Bauer, Farmer, Dorchester, 111. 

John Boyle, Jr., B. E., Fifth-year student in Mining 
Engineering, Washington University. 

John L. Bryan, Journeyman in Pipe Works, Wash- 
ington, Mo. 

Alexander W. Buchanan, Student in Mechanical 
Engineering, Cornell University. 

Peyton T. Carr, Clerk office of Insurance Com- 
missioner. 

Edward E. Davidson, Partner in Real Estate busi- 
ness, St. Paul, Minn. 

Cornelius V. De Jong, Machinist. 

Harry Deitrich, Machinist, Draughtsman, Pattern- 
maker, etc., Brass Foundry, St. Louis. 



APPENDIX. 247 

William S. Dodd, Collector Laclede Gas Works, 
St. Louis. 

Henry F. Dose, Student University of Illinois. 

Wm. J. Downton, Architect's office. 

Theo. Gluck, Junior Class in Mining Engineering, 
Washington University. 

S. D. Hayden, Clerk in Southeastern Railway Office. 

Robert L. Hyatt, Farmer, St. Louis County. 

Conrad S. Ittner, Jr., Bricklayer. 

Wm. B. Ittner, Student in Architecture, Cornell 
University. 

Albert L. Johnson, Senior Class Civil Engineering, 
Washington University. 

Wm. Love, Assistant Engineer Missouri Pacific 
Railway. 

Harry W. Lytance. 

Robert H. McMath, B. E., with Adolphus Meier & 
Co., St. Louis. 

Otto L. Mersman, Merchant, St. Louis. 

Wm. G. Nixon, Clerk Supply Department, Iron 
Mountain Railway. 

Everett G. Phillips, Engineer and Shoemaker, St. 
Louis. 

Wm. K. Roth, Grocer, St. Louis. 

Justus W. Schmidt, Draughtsman Architect's office. 

Greenfield Sluder, Medical Student. 

Jules C. Smith, Machinist. 

Herbert Taylor, Draughtsman. 

John P. Thul, Senior Class, Dynamic Engineering, 
Washington University. 

John F. Valid, Clerk in Commission House. 



248 HIGHER GROUND. 



Class P/1SS4. 

Grant Beebe, Junior Class, Dynamic Engineering, 
Washington University. 

A. Theodore Bruegel, Junior Class, Mechanical 
Engineering, Lehigh University. 

Geo. R. Carothers, Principal Technical School, Cin- 
cinnati, Ohio. 

Walter R. Coles, Clerk with John Coles & Co. 

Claude N. Comstock, Junior Class in Civil Engi- 
neering, Columbia College, N. Y. 

Geo. D. Eaton, Principal High School, Marine, 111. 

Alfred C. Einstein, Stenographer St. L. & S. F. Ry. 

Hamilton R. Gamble, Clerk wholesale drug store. 

Charles D. Grayson, Practical Mailer, St. Louis. 

Geo. N Hinchman, Jr., Draughtsman in Office of 
Patent-lawyer. 

Ernest C. Klipstein, Draughtsman. 

Charles A. Langdon, Clerk. 

James L. Marks, Machinist, Shops Mo. Pac. Ry. 
St. Louis. 

Constant Mathey, Salesman with Mermod, Jaccard, 
&Co. 

Alex. D. Mermod, Ranchman, Poncha Park, Col. 

Ralph H. Miller, Principal Toledo Manual Training 
School, Toledo, Ohio. 

George S. Mills, Teacher of Drawing, Toledo 
Manual Training School. 

William O'Keefe, Shipping Clerk of Machinery. 

Otto H. Olfe, Draughtsman and Superintendent 
with W. E. Bent, Architect, St. Louis. 

Harry M. Pflager, Head Draughtsman Pullman 
Car Works, St. Louis. 



APPENDIX. 249 

John H. Pope, Junior Class in Civil Engineering, 
Washington University. 

Edward L. Pretorious, Clerk business department 
Westliche Post, St. Louis. 

Wm. F. Richards, Clerk in office of Vandalia R. R. 

Harry C. Scott, Clerk in Railroad office. 

Percy S. Silver, Manufacturer, Lexington, Mo. 

Charles F. Springer, Chicago. 

H. Reed Stanford, Junior Class Dynamic Engineer- 
ing, Washington University. 

Homer Wise, Foreman Collier Lead and Oil Works, 
St. Louis, 

Edmund H. Wuerpel, Student of Drawing and 
Architecture. 

Harry B. Wyeth, Sophomore Class, Michigan Uni- 
versity, will study law. 



Class 0/1885. 

Wm. "F. Barnes, Teacher Manual Training School, 
Eau Claire, Wis. 

Hatcher Bates, Farmer, Mo. 

A. M. Bumann, Teacher Manual Training, Omaha 
High School, Neb. 

King Charles Barton, travelling in Europe. 

Judson S. Bemis, with Bemis Brothers Bag Co. 

Edgar L. Brother, Teacher Manual Training, Swath- 
more College, Penn. 

Thomas W. Booth, St Louis, Law Student. 

Albert H. Buck, Draughtsman American Brake 
Co., St. Louis. 

Edward H. Chapman, Farmer. 



250 HIGHER GROUND. 

Frederick A. Chouteau, Teacher Manual Training, 
Swathmore College, Penn. 

Geo. W. Danforth, Cadet U. S. Naval Academy, 
Annapolis. 

H. G. Ellis, Student School of Fine Arts, Washing- 
ton University. 

Arthur Feickert, Baker, Belleville, 111. 

Charles O. Fischer, Office of Civil Engineer. 

Wm. F. Hopper, Apprentice at Stove and Machine 
Pattern-making, St. Louis. 

Clarence H. Howard, General Foreman Motive 
Power, Mo. Pac. Ry. 

H. F. S. Kleinschmidt, Student Washington Uni- 
versity, expects to teach. 

Albert Koberle, Student Sophomore Class, Wash- 
ington University. 

Wm. P. Laing, Machinist, St. Louis. 

Edward L. Lange, Clerk Hardware Store. 

Ernest E. Lazar, Baldridge Type-writing Co. 

Louis D. Lawnin, Clerk N. O. Nelson Mfg. Co. 

Edward H. Lebens, Student Sophomore Class, 
Washington University. 

John J. Lichter, Jr., Student Sophomore Class, Wash- 
ington University. 

Wm. Alex. Magee, Practical Electrician. 

Frank W. Morse, Foreman Wabash Repair Shops, 
St. Louis. 

Frank E. Nulsen, Student Sophomore Class, Wash- 
ington University. 

Geo. R. Olshausen, Student Sophomore Class, 
Washington University. 

Charles M. Parker, Student Sophomore Class, Troy 
Polytechnic Institute. 



APPENDIX. 251 

Frank E. Reel, at home. 

Louis C. Rohlfing, Medical Student. 

Edward H. Rattman, Stenographer. 

James L. Sloss, Student. 

Edward Smith, Lumber Business. 

Geo. M. Stedman, Agricultural Works, Aurora, Ind. 

J. Harrison Steedman, Student Sophomore Class, 
Washington University. 

Hamilton W. Stone, Teller, Bank, St. Louis. 

Wm. T. Treadway, Machinist Mo. Pac. Shops, St. 
Louis. 

Harry L. Whitman, in business with his father. 

Charles H. Wright, Teacher Manual Training 
School, Denver University, Col. 

In submitting the above report of the condi- 
tion, methods, aims, and results, of the school 
during its six and a half years, the Director is 
gratified by the thought that in spite of its many 
shortcomings the school has served to demon- 
strate the entire feasibility of incorporating the 
elements of intellectual and manual training in 
such a way that each is the gainer thereby ; and 
that he has correctly read the public demand for 
an education which shall insure the most valuable 
mental discipline, at the same time that it gives 
knowledge and skill of great intrinsic worth. 



TTHE STANDARD CANTATAS. Their 

-*- Stories, their Music, and their Composers. A Hand- 
book. By George P. Upton. i2mo, 367 pages, yellow 
edges, price, #1.50 ; extra gilt, gilt edges, $2.00. 

In half calf, gilt top .... $3.25 
In half morocco, gilt edges . 3.75 
In full morocco, flexible . . 6.00 



The u Standard Cantatas " forms the third volume in the uni- 
form series which already includes the now well known " Stan- 
dard Operas" and the " Standard Oratorios. " This latest work 
deals with a class of musical compositions, midway between the 
opera and the oratorio, which is growing rapidly in favor both 
with composers and audiences. 

As in the two former works, the subject is treated, so far as 
possible, in an untechnical manner, so that it may satisfy the 
needs of musically uneducated music lovers, and add to their en- 
joyment by a plain statement of the story of the cantata and a 
popular analysis of its music, with brief pertinent selections from 
its poetical text. 

The book includes a comprehensive essay on the origin of the 
cantata, and its development from rude beginnings ; biographical 
sketches of the composers ; carefully prepared descriptions of 
the plots and the music ; and an appendix containing the names 
and dates of composition of all the best known cantatas from the 
earliest times. 

This series of works on popular music has steadily grown in 
favor since the appearance of the first volume on the Operas. 
When the series is completed, as it will be next year by a volume 
on the Standard Symphonies, it will be, as the New York 
" Nation ' has said, indispensable to every musical library. 



Sold by all booksellers, or mailed on receipt of price, by 
A. C. McCLURG & CO., Publishers, 

Cor. Wabash Ave. and Madison St., Chicago. 



THE STANDARD ORATORIOS. 
Their Stories, their Music, and their Composers. A 
Handbook. By George P. Upton. 121110, 335 pages, 
yellow edges, price, £1.50; extra gilt, gilt edges, $2.00. 

In half calf, gilt top .... $3.25 
In half morocco, gilt edges . 3.75 
In full morocco, flexible . . 6.00 



Music lovers are under a new obligation to Mr. Upton for this 
companion to his ''Standard Operas," — two books which de- 
serve to be placed on the same shelf with Grove's and Riemann's 
musical dictionaries. — The Nation, New York. 

Mr. George P. Upton has followed in the lines that he laid 
down in his " Standard Operas," and has produced an admira- 
ble handwork, which answers every purpose that such a volume 
is designed to answer, and which is certain to be popular now 
and for years to come. — The Mail a,7id Express, New York. 

Like the valuable art hand-books of Mrs. Jamison, these 
volumes contain a world of interesting information, indispensable 
to critics and art amateurs. The volume under review is ele- 
gantly and succinctly written, and the subjects are handled in a 
thoroughly comprehensive manner. — Public Opinion, Wash- 
ington- 

The book is a masterpiece of skilful handling, charming the 
reader with its pure English style, and keeping his attention 
always awake in an arrangement of matter which makes each 
succeeding page and chapter fresh in interest and always full 
of instruction, while always entertaining. — The Standard, 
Chicago. 

The author of this book has done a real service to the vast 
number of people who, while they are lovers of music, have 
neither the leisure nor inclination to become deeply versed in its 
literature. . . . The information conveyed is of just the sort that 
the average of cultivated people will welcome as an aid to com- 
prehending and talking about this species of musical composi- 
tion. — Church Magazine, Philadelphia. 



Sold by all booksellers, or mailed on receipt of price, by 

A. C. McCLURG & CO., Publishers, 

Cor. Wabash Ave. and Madison St., Chicago. 



THE STANDARD OPERAS. Their 
Plots, their Music, and their Composers. By 
George P. Upton, author of " Woman in Music," 
etc., etc. 

i2mo, flexible cloth, yellow edges $1.50 

The same, extra gilt, gilt edges 2.00 



"Mr. Upton has performed a service that can hardly be too 
highly appreciated, in collecting the plots, music, and the com- 
posers of the standard operas, to the number of sixty-four, and 
bringing them together in one perfectly arranged volume. . . . 
His work is one simply invaluable to the general reading pub- 
lic. Technicalities are avoided, the aim being to give to musi- 
cally uneducated lovers of the opera a clear understanding of the 
works they hear. It is description, not criticism, and calculated 
to greatly increase the intelligent enjoyment of music." — Boston 
Traveller. 

" Among the multitude of handbooks which are published 
every year, and are described by easy-going writers of book- 
notices as supplying a long-felt want, we know of none which 
so completely carries out the intention of the writer as ' The 
Standard Operas,' by Mr. George P. Upton, whose object is to 
present to his readers a comprehensive sketch of each of the 
operas contained in the modern repertory. . . . There are 
thousands of music-loving people who will be glad to have the 
kind of knowledge which Mr. Upton has collected for their 
benefit, and has cast in a clear and compact form." — R. H. 
Stoddard, in " Evening Mail and Express " {New York). 

"The summaries of the plots are so clear, logical, and well 
written, that one can read them with real pleasure, which cannot 
be said of the ordinary operatic synopses. But the most im- 
portant circumstance is that Mr. Upton's book is fully abreast 
of the times."— The Nation {New York), 



Sold by all booksellers, or mailed, post-paid, on receipt 
of price, by 

A. C. McCLURG & CO., Publishers, 
Cor. Wabash Ave. and Madison St., Chicago. 



THE BOOK-LOVER. A Guide to the 
Best Reading. By James Baldwin, Ph. D. 
Sixth edition, 161110, cloth, gilt top, 201 pages. Price, 

$1.25. 

In half calf or half morocco, $3.00. 



Of this book, on the best in English Literature, which has 
already been declared of the highest value by the testimony of 
the best critics in this country, an edition of one thousand copies 
has just been ordered for London, the home of English Liter- 
ature, — a compliment of which its scholarly western author may 
justly be proud. 

We know of no work of the kind which gives so much useful 
information in so small a space. — Evening Telegram, New 
York. 

Sound in theory and in a practical point of view. The courses 
of reading laid down are made of good books, and in general, of 
the best. — Independe?it, New York. 

Mr. Baldwin has written in this monograph a delightful eulo- 
gium of books and their manifold influence, and has gained 
therein two classes of readers, — the scholarly class, to which he 
belongs, and the receptive class, which he has benefited. — 
Evening Mail and Express, New York. 

If a man needs that the love of books be cultivated within him, 
such a gem of a book as Dr. Baldwin's ought to do the work. 
Perfect and inviting in all that a book ought outwardly to be, ks 
contents are such as to instruct the mind at the same time that 
they answer the taste, and the reader who goes carefully through 
its two hundred pages ought not only to love books in general 
better than he ever did before, but to love them more wisely, 
more intelligently, more discriminatingly, and with more profit 
to his own soul. — Literary World, Boston. 



Sold by all booksellers, or mailed on receipt of price, by 
A. C. McCLURG & CO., Publishers, 

Cor. Wabash Ave. and Madison St., Chicago. 



9. 50M. 12-5- '03. (10) 

FINE FOR OVER-DET^in-' -*»• 

ALTERATION? 



